TPC-Journal-V4-Issue1

59 The Professional Counselor \Volume 4, Issue 1 often demonstrated through devaluing, demeaning, disadvantaging and the unfair regard that African-American males are subjected to on a daily basis (Franklin, 1999). According to Franklin (1999), for some African-Americans, “being able to discern when behavior is rac- ist, and then acting consistent with one’s sense of self, is the personal struggle for visibility” (p. 764). Racial experiences influence African-American males’ sense of self. Therefore, the negotiation of visibility that some African-American men encounter becomes a process of seeking validation, respect and dignity with or without compromising their identity. On the other hand, limited identity development or a lack of self-concept can result in identity erosion (e.g., alienation, invisibility, identity confusion; Cross & Vandiver, 2003). Moreover, racial identity development can act as a defense against the invisibility syndrome (Parham, 1999). To that end, Parham (1999) warns that African-American people must be cautious where they seek valida- tion, stating that it is damaging to seek validation from the oppressor, especially when that validation is “disaf- firming and dehumanizing” (Parham, 1999, p. 800). In The Souls of Black Folk , Du Bois (1903) expounds on this phenomenon by stating the following: It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One ever feels his two-ness,—an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder (pp. 8–9). Parham (1999) states that when personal affirmations and basic needs are not met as a result of racism, African- Americans may be prone to exhibit high-risk behaviors. Nigrescence Theory: Correlations Between Racial Identity and Invisibility Nigrescence theory has been revisited and revised over the course of 40 years to its current expanded ver- sion (Cross, 1991; Cross & Vandiver, 2003). Nigrescence theory expanded (the theory’s most current name and version) is utilized for the purpose of this study to provide a foundation for racial identity development and to validate the correlation between racial identity development and invisibility. While other theoretical underpin- ning could be employed as the foundation for racial identity development (e.g., critical race theory), expanded nigrescence theory was chosen because of its emphasis on psychological themes in the social history of Black/ African-American people (Cross & Vandiver, 2003). As such, the first author provides a brief exploration of the experiences of Black people in the context of nigrescence theory in order to provide foundational information to support the correlation between invisibility and racial identity development, and this research. The extant literature and empirical research relative to Cross’s nigrescence theory is immense (Cross, 1991; Cross & Vandiver, 2003). Inasmuch, this discussion moves beyond providing a review of the expanded theory itself. Instead emphasis is placed on central elements of nigrescence theory expanded that align with the goals of the present study. The term nigrescence means “the process of becoming Black” (Cross, 1991). The theory’s theme revolves around the processes involved in developing Black racial and cultural identity (Cross, 2003). Core precepts of nigrescence theory expanded include the following: (a) Blackness is viewed as a social identity and not a per- sonality variable; (b) various types of Black identity have resulted in the delineation of a range of identity exem- plars; and (c) the best way to conceptualize Black identity variability is through the explications of ideological