TPC-Journal-V4-Issue1

60 The Professional Counselor \Volume 4, Issue 1 types (profiles); with the different types or interpretations of what it means to be Black at the heart of the theory (Cross & Vandiver, 2003). Being Black/African-American is not just about skin color or the origin of descendants; it is equally related to how Black people define themselves in a society that perpetuates prejudice, racism, microaggression, sepa- ration and exclusion (Gibson & Obgu, 1991). According to Cross & Vandiver (2003), the core of nigrescence theory expanded focuses on various ways Black people make sense of themselves as social beings rather than a collection of personality traits. Both past and present racism may impede African-American males’ ability to form an identity that includes “independence, success and achievement” (Oyserman, Gant, & Ager, 1995, p. 1219). However, identity devel- opment is essential in the promotion of well-being over the lifespan (Oyserman et al., 1995). Additionally, a well-established sense of self improves the ability to organize and interpret social experiences, regulate affect, control behavior, and develop healthy cognition (Cross & Vandiver, 2003; Oyserman et al., 1995). Without it, African-American males experience misinterpreted social experiences, self-blame, and guilt, which over time can limit education attainment, occupation attainment, and personal fulfillment (Gibson & Ogbu, 1991). It is the correlation between racial identity and invisibility, and the resulting issues, that are at the root of this study. Research Rationale The purpose of this phenomenological study is to answer the following research questions: How do African- American men cope with invisibility experiences? What role might counselors play in assisting African-Amer- ican males cope with invisibility experiences? To answer these questions, the authors explored the lived invis- ibility experiences of seven African-American males. Philosophical and Theoretical Underpinning At the core of the study’s purpose is a humanistic and multicultural perspective. Tenets consistent with both humanistic (Scholl, 2008) and multicultural (Sue, Ivey, & Pedersen, 1996) theories are interwoven throughout the study. Specifically, emphasis is placed on empathy, self-awareness, and understanding and valuing all human beings. With humanism and multiculturalism in mind, a phenomenological approach was utilized in the study to gather the firsthand accounts of the invisibility experiences of African-American males when encountering macro and micro forms of racism. Additionally, a constructivist approach was activated with the purpose of un- derstanding the human experience through narrative conceptions of the phenomena (Hays & Wood, 2011). By utilizing a constructivist perspective, additional attention was placed on putting forth the participants’ perspec- tive and ensuring contextual relevance (Hays & Wood, 2011). Phenomenological research captures the lived experiences of people (Levers et al., 2008). Phenomenologi- cal researchers study the essence of a phenomenon and explore how individuals situate themselves in the world based on how they make meaning of their experiences (Levers et al., 2008). Utilizing a phenomenological ap- proach in this study helps professional counselors better understand African-American male invisibility experi- ences. The data gathered during the study were thematically categorized and used to provide specific recom- mendations for counselors working with African-American males of all ages in diverse clinical settings. Primary Researcher Bias and Influence on the Study As an African-American female who has heard a lifetime of stories about invisibility incidents from Afri- can-American males, read about invisibility syndrome (Ellison, 1952; Franklin, 1999), as well as experienced