TPC-Journal-V5-Issue2

262 hurricanes and school shootings (Burnham, 2005, 2007, 2009), warrants a renewed focus on children’s fears and the promotion of resilience (Burnham, 2009; Tugade, Fredrickson, & Barrett, 2004). Fears, worries and other stressors (e.g., academic issues, conflict, change) are typical aspects of human development; however, children often do not learn effective or appropriate skills to help them cope with these challenges (Robinson et al., 2004). Although children may develop coping mechanisms in the absence of direct instruction, these are often avoidant mechanisms that lead to poorer outcomes (Abei, Giger, Plattner, Metzke, & Steinhausen, 2013). Maladaptive fear responses can lead to the development of anxiety disorders (Kiel & Buss, 2014). Anxiety is the most prevalent childhood disorder and a strong predictor of adult psychopathology (Weems & Silverman, 2006). Thus, teaching children helpful ways to cope with fears can promote healthy development. The need for developing effective coping skills in children is most evident during times of natural disasters and global crises (Burnham, 2009). During these periods, children are at increased risk for developing situation- specific fears. For instance, children who witnessed the September 11 th attacks became more fearful of war and terrorism as a result (Burnham, 2007). This increased fearfulness also is the case for children who experience natural disasters such as earthquakes, wildfires and even lightning strikes (Dollinger, O’Donnell, & Staley, 1984). In addition to dealing with global crises or natural disasters, counselors must be able to help children with everyday problems such as graphic media coverage of war and disasters, teasing, bullying, family conflict, economic problems, and academic failure (Burnham, 2009). For example, Robinson, Robinson, and Whetsell (1988) found that children’s fears of people and of being alone have increased since early research began on children’s fears in the 1900s. While the causality behind this change is unknown, the authors suggested possible associations with increased exposure to violent media coverage, changes in family structure and the rise in programs teaching about stranger danger. There is increasingly more evidence that television and other media contribute to children’s fears (Burnham, 2009; Burnham & Hooper, 2008; Lahikainen, Kraav, Kirmanen, & Taimalu, 2006). Furthermore, children’s fears are not relegated only to realistic or plausible events. Elementary school-aged children, in particular, have a limited conception of the world and tend to confuse reality and fantasy, which can lead to unnecessary fears and distorted assumptions (Moses, Aldridge, Cellitti, & McCorquodale, 2003). This confluence presents children with a vast range of potential fears, and their inability to cope with such fears can have devastating effects. It follows, then, that counseling approaches for fear-related problems in children should evolve commensurately with contemporary society, and professional counselors must improve their current practices for the treatment of children’s fears. The first step in this process is to identify areas that can be improved in order to accentuate current treatment modalities. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the emerging research relevant to the fear and anxiety experienced by school-aged children and adolescents. More specifically, this article aims to bring together new research and theory on positive emotions that can aid professional counselors in cultivating resilience and affect regulation in the children with whom they work. To this end, the following article explores the following: factors related to fear development in children and adolescents ( children throughout this paper refers to children and adolescents ), issues related to treatment, and implications for counselors. Fear Development Considerable literature exists outlining the normative progression of fear development in children (e.g., Burnham, 2005, 2009; Driessnack, 2006; Elbedour, Shulman, & Kedem, 1997; Lahikainen, Kirmanen, Kraav,