The Professional Counselor | Volume 14, Issue 3 236 behaviors (Brenner et al., 2021), such as minimizing the impact of their trauma experiences, having a tendency to perceive and present themselves as strong, or avoiding discussing their trauma experiences to avoid the possible pain (Muller, 2009). Therefore, clinicians need to hold a safe space to challenge survivors with avoidant attachment to reactivate their attachment systems, such as by validating their avoidance and ambivalence or facilitating conversations to turn toward trauma-related experiences and emotions instead of turning away. Survivors with anxious attachment, on the other hand, demonstrate hyperactivation attachment behaviors, including fear of rejection and abandonment, hypersensitivity to and preoccupation with relationships and intimacy, utilization of negative emotional regulation strategies, as well as difficulties with leaving abusive relationships (Kural & Kovacs, 2022; Velotti et al., 2018). Clinicians could teach anxious-attached survivors some effective coping strategies, including selfregulation skills, creating boundaries, establishing safety plans, maintaining relationships with others, and increasing self-compassion (Rizo et al., 2017), which may help them to perceive themselves as worthy, lovable, and less dependent on others. Furthermore, group counseling is a powerful way to learn about trusting oneself and others and to improve interpersonal relationship skills. Clients’ attachment patterns will be activated through interactions with the group members and the facilitators. Clients with anxious attachment tend to react to group members’ rejections, while clients with avoidant attachment tend to demonstrate withdrawal behaviors (e.g., disengagement; Zorzella et al., 2014). Therefore, when working with these clients, clinicians should stimulate the change of internal working models by using the group as a secure base to foster corrective emotional exchanges that challenge group members’ maladaptive beliefs about themselves and others (Marmarosh et al., 2013). One of the important findings of the current study is that childhood attachment with the primary caregiver(s) buffered the relationship between IPV and self-esteem. From a clinical point of view, the result may bring hope for adult survivors of interpersonal violence regarding their healing process; primary caregivers could still serve as a secure base to offer a crucial opportunity to strengthen the internal working models that would positively affect later adjustment. Counselors could assess survivors’ attachment with their primary caregivers and give them autonomy to determine if it is beneficial to get their non-abusive primary caregivers involved in the treatment to provide support. Although the moderation result from the present study was statistically significant, the magnitude of moderating effect was small. During adulthood, individuals expand their relationship networks with their peers (e.g., friends) and romantic partners, as these relationships become more central in their daily life (Guarnieri et al., 2015). Therefore, the effectiveness of childhood attachment mitigating the adverse effect of IPV in adulthood clinically needs to be further investigated. Conclusion The present study empirically examines the moderation role of childhood attachment on the association between IPV, adult attachment, and self-esteem. Specifically, we found that childhood attachment was a significant moderator buffering the relationship between the experience of IPV and self-esteem. A theoretical and empirical understanding of the role of attachment in the context of IPV has implications for researchers and clinicians working with survivors and their families. Conflict of Interest and Funding Disclosure The authors reported no conflict of interest or funding contributions for the development of this manuscript.
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