TPC Journal-Vol 9- Issue 1

46 The Professional Counselor | Volume 9, Issue 1 of growth will bring about new challenges that may cause participants to further question the manner in which the program prompted them to make sense of the world in which they live. In role model and mentorship relationships that participants are encouraged to develop, it is recommended that ongoing and long-term efforts be made to help participants continuously reflect upon and reintegrate their sense of empowerment so that it fits their reality as they progress into high school, college, and beyond. The manner in which a middle school student understands cultural trauma might be very different from the manner in which a college student conceptualizes cultural trauma. Without denying or minimizing what has taken place and continues to persist (i.e., the historical oppression and current discrimination of African Americans on the basis of racial background), this approach to addressing cultural trauma emphasizes the adoption of an empowered sense of self and a heightened sense of collective agency that allows for creative self-transformation even in a society that continues to exhibit systemic injustice. Conflict of Interest and Funding Disclosure The authors reported no conflict of interest or funding contributions for the development of this manuscript. References American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Anderson, R. E., & Stevenson, H. C. (2019). RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families. American Psychologist , 74 , 63–75. doi:10.1037/amp0000392 Barnes, M. L. (2016). The more things change: New moves for legitimizing racial discrimination in a post-race world. Minnesota Law Review , 100 , 2043–2102. Benner, A. D., & Wang, Y. (2014). Demographic marginalization, social integration, and adolescents’ educational success. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 43 , 1611–1627.doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0151-6 BigFoot, D. S., & Schmidt, S. R. (2010). Honoring children, mending the circle: Cultural adaptation of trauma- focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for American Indian and Alaska Native children. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 66 , 847–856. doi:10.1002/jclp.20707 BraveHeart, M. Y. H., & DeBruyn, L. M. (1998). The American Indian holocaust: Healing historical unresolved grief. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research , 8 (2), 60–82. doi:10.5820/aian.0802.1998.60 Brown, R. B. (2003). Emotions and behavior: Exercises in emotional intelligence. Journal of Management Education , 27 , 122–134. doi:10.1177/1052562902239251 Burstow, B. (2005). A critique of posttraumatic stress disorder and the DSM. Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 45 , 429–445. doi:10.1177 /0022167805280265 Chaplin, T. M. (2015). Gender and emotion expression: A developmental contextual perspective. Emotion Review , 7 , 14–21. doi:10.1177/1754073914544408 Cholewa, B., & West-Olatunji, C. (2008). Exploring the relationship among cultural discontinuity, psychological distress, and academic outcomes with low-income, culturally diverse students. Professional School Counseling , 12 , 54–61. doi:10.1177/2156759X0801200106 Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. K. (1939). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification in Negro preschool children. The Journal of Social Psychology , 10 , 591–599. doi:10.1080/00224545.1939.9713394