Catherine Clifton - The Professional Counselor

Self-Compassion as a Buffer: Mitigating Impostor Phenomenon and Promoting Resilience During Counselor Development

Apr 1, 2026 | Volume 16 - Issue 1

Brian J. Clarke, Michael T. Hartley, Austin M. Guida

Impostor phenomenon (IP), characterized by persistent self-doubt despite objective success, is prevalent during the early stages of counselor development, often emerging as individuals transition from training into professional practice. This study examined whether self-compassion mediates relationships between IP, resilience, and mental health among 281 counselors-in-training enrolled in departments accredited by the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. Mediation analyses showed that self-compassion fully mediated the effects of IP on resilience and depression and partially mediated the effect on anxiety. MANOVA results indicated that higher self-compassion corresponded with lower IP, anxiety, and depression, and greater resilience, with robust effects. Findings identify self-compassion as a developmental competency that supports balanced self-evaluation, emotional regulation, and sustainable counselor well-being. Integrating self-compassion training into counselor education and supervision may help developing counselors manage impostor-related distress, strengthen resilience, and promote ethical, sustainable professional practice.

Keywords: impostor phenomenon, counselor development, self-compassion, resilience, mental health

Building resilience and prioritizing mental health are vital during the formative stages of counselor development. During the early stages of training and supervised practice, developing counselors experience the inherent emotional demands and elevated anxiety common while learning to integrate theoretical knowledge into clinical practice (Skovholt & Trotter-Mathison, 2024; Stoltenberg & McNeill, 2010). Although these feelings may diminish with increased experience, enduring self-doubt and inadequacy may signal impostor phenomenon (Clance & Lawry, 2024). Imposter phenomenon (IP), characterized by persistent feelings of fraudulence and incompetence despite evidence of success, impacts nearly all developing counselors (Clarke et al., 2025; Tigranyan et al., 2021). Those experiencing IP may struggle to internalize mastery experiences and fail to consolidate moments of success into genuine confidence (Gadsby & Hohwy, 2024; Roskowski, 2010). Individual differences in coping with IP may be partially explained by self-compassion, which may buffer IP’s negative effects on counseling self-efficacy and well-being (Clarke et al., 2025).

The persistent fear of being exposed as a fraud becomes a harmful cycle whereby individuals ruminate on perceived shortcomings, discount positive feedback, and misattribute positive outcomes to external factors (Clance & Lawry, 2024). Behaviors associated with IP include extreme perfectionism, procrastination, and/or exhausting overpreparation, which can inhibit counselor development (Clarke et al., 2025; Nguyen, 2023). Because IP is rooted in shame and feelings of inadequacy, it contributes to isolation, burnout, and compassion fatigue (Garba et al., 2024; Ojeda, 2024).

IP undermines the reflective, relational, and self-evaluative capacities that are central to counselor development. Counselors who experience chronic self-doubt may hesitate to disclose errors in supervision, question their competence, and struggle to sustain resilience, patterns that can jeopardize client care and professional longevity (Delaney, 2018; Housenecht & Swank, 2022). Given the demands of counselor training and practice, protective factors such as resilience and self-compassion may be critical for developing counselor well-being and persistence.

Resilience is a protective factor to cope with mental distress and burnout (Gerber & Anaki, 2021; Webb & Rosenbaum, 2019). Emerging from the positive psychology movement, resilience explains why some individuals behave adaptively under great stress while others do not. Beyond recovery from adversity, resilience is a process of successful adaptation and coping during challenging or threatening circumstances (Webb & Rosenbaum, 2019). Cultivating new coping mechanisms and fostering personal growth, resilience can sustain well-being and performance during difficult experiences. The limited research on resilience among developing counselors has identified self-awareness and self-compassion as critical protective factors to cope with the emotional demands of becoming a counselor (Hou & Skovholt, 2020).

As a protective factor, self-compassion can play an important role in the resilience and mental health of developing counselors, especially in the presence of IP (Clarke et al., 2025; Neff et al., 2005). Self-compassion is comprised of three interrelated dimensions: mindfulness, common humanity, and self-kindness (Neff, 2023). Mindfulness, the core of self-compassion, involves maintaining awareness of present experiences with reduced reactivity and self-judgment. The common humanity dimension refers to the acceptance that suffering is inherent to our shared human experience. By normalizing challenging experiences, this perspective helps prevent the isolation that may arise from perceiving failures as uniquely personal. Finally, self-kindness encompasses behaviors and ways of relating intrapersonally that offer support and comfort during times of suffering or setbacks. Rather than defaulting to self-criticism, overidentification with failures, or isolation, self-compassion enables understanding and resilience, reducing the impact of IP and the fear of failure during counselor development (Clarke et al., 2025; Warren et al., 2016).

The theoretical alignment between self-compassion and resilience is rooted in their shared emphasis on adaptive emotional regulation, growth through adversity, and the development of a stable and supportive inner identity (Warren et al., 2016). Self-compassion supports sustainable resilience by reducing self-criticism and perfectionism and fostering a growth mindset (Neff, 2023; Warren et al., 2016). Indeed, a recent meta-analysis indicated that self-compassion is consistently linked to positive outcomes among mental health professionals, including enhanced competence, improved therapeutic presence, and a greater willingness to seek guidance and supervision (Crego et al., 2022).

Because of its regulating effects, self-compassion may help developing counselors to tolerate the stress of IP through improved emotional self-regulation (Crego et al., 2022; Neff, 2023). In this way, self-compassion can function as an emotion-focused coping mechanism that reduces the mental distress associated with IP (Clarke, 2024; Crego et al., 2022; Gerber & Anaki, 2021). Ultimately, when individuals experience IP-related distress, self-compassionate responses (mindfulness, common humanity, self-kindness) may interrupt the IP cycle, preserving resilience and mental health (Neff et al., 2005).

The purpose of this study is to examine how self-compassion functions as a protective factor in the relationship between IP, resilience, and mental health during counselor development. Research has found self-compassion to support resilience among health care providers (Delaney, 2018), yet much less is known about the relationship between self-compassion and resilience among developing counselors who experience IP. Addressing the negative impact of IP on counselor development, this article explores how self-compassion might mitigate IP’s negative relationships with resilience and mental health (Clarke et al, 2025; Roskowski, 2010; Tigranyan et al., 2021). The guiding research questions were:

To what extent does self-compassion mediate the relationships between IP and the outcomes of resilience and mental health?
How do levels of self-compassion relate to variations in IP, resilience, and mental health among the sample?

We hypothesized that IP would have a significant negative relationship with resilience and mental health, and that self-compassion will significantly mediate these negative associations. Specifically, higher levels of self-compassion will relate to lower IP and improved mental health and resilience. Our findings offer valuable insights into how self-compassion can enhance resilience and promote mental health during counselor development.

Methods

Procedure
The study received IRB approval prior to the recruitment of master’s-level counseling students from across the United States. Data were collected between April and October 2023, using an online survey disseminated via email to Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP)–accredited program liaisons. These emails described the study and outlined informed consent procedures and inclusion criteria. Eligible participants were individuals enrolled in CACREP-accredited counseling programs aged 18 or older. After consenting, participants were presented with the measures and a demographic questionnaire developed by the authors. Engagement with the study concluded once participants either completed or exited the survey.

Participants
The sample consisted of 281 counseling students attending CACREP-accredited counseling programs from 37 U.S. states and the District of Columbia. Although the present sample consisted of counselors-in-training (CITs), the term developing counselors is used throughout this paper to reflect the broader developmental continuum that spans counselor training and early professional practice (Stoltenberg & McNeill, 2010).

Consistent with the population of CITs, most participants identified as White (n = 190, 67.29%) with lower percentages identifying as Hispanic or Latinx (n = 43, 15.2 %), Asian (n = 17, 6.0%), African American or Black (n = 13, 4.6%), multiracial (n = 13, 4.6%), American Indian or Alaskan Native (n = 3, 1.1%) and Middle Eastern (n = 2, 0.7%). The majority (n = 237, 83.7%) identified as female, with 32 (11.3%) identifying as male, 6 (2.1%) as non-binary, 4 (1.4%) as genderqueer, and 2 (0.7%) choosing not to disclose their gender identity. Participants were from clinical mental health (n = 170, 60.1%), school counseling (n = 49, 17.3%), rehabilitation counseling (n = 49, 17.3%), and marriage and family counseling (n = 13, 4.6%) programs. The average participant age was 32 years (SD = 10.35), with an age range from 21 to 67 years.

Measures
Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form (SCS-SF)
The SCS-SF is a short form of the Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003), consisting of 12 self-report items selected from the original scale (Raes et al., 2011). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). Examples include “I try to see my failings as part of the human condition” and “I’m disapproving and judgmental about my own flaws and inadequacies” (Neff, 2003, p. 2). SCS-SF scores have shown good internal consistency (α = .86), with its total scores strongly correlating with those of the full version (r = .98; Raes et al., 2011). Factor analysis has confirmed that the SCS-SF shares the same factor structure as the original scale (Neff et al., 2019; Raes et al., 2011). Scores are interpreted as levels of self-compassion: low (1–2.4), moderate (2.5–3.5), and high (3.51–5). In the present study, SCS-SF scores demonstrated good internal consistency reflected in an alpha of .85, and omega of .85.

Academic Resilience Scale-6 (ARS-6)
The ARS-6 is a concise self-report scale designed to measure academic resilience, defined as the ability to manage challenges, stress, and setbacks within a learning environment (Martin & Marsh, 2006). Items include statements such as “I’m good at bouncing back from a poor grade or difficult feedback” and “I don’t let a bad grade or feedback affect my confidence.” Responses are rated on a 7-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), with higher scores reflecting greater academic resilience. Item and factor level construct validity was supported through factor score estimates, correlation, path analysis, and cluster analysis, showing the ARS scores were closely aligned with related constructs including self-efficacy, control, planning, low anxiety, and persistence (Martin & Marsh, 2006). ARS-6 scores have demonstrated good internal consistency, with an alpha coefficient of .89 (Martin & Marsh, 2006). In the current study, the ARS-6 scores showed acceptable reliability supported by alpha and omega scores of .83.

Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS-10)
The CIPS-10 (Wang et al., 2022) is a condensed, 10-item version of the original 20-item Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS) designed to assess impostor feelings (Clance, 1985). A systematic review by Mak et al. (2019) supported the CIPS-20 as a valid (construct, criterion, and content) measure of IP. The CIPS-10 utilizes a Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 5 (very true) and includes items from the CIPS-20, such as “I’m afraid people important to me may find out that I’m not as capable as they think I am” and “I feel my success was due to some kind of luck rather than competence.” Wang et al. (2022) reported strong internal reliability for the CIPS-10 (α = .93), with total scores closely aligning with those of the CIPS-20. Construct validity was supported through factor score estimates, revealing a single-factor structure similar to the 20-item version. In this study, CIPS-10 scores were interpreted using adjusted categories from Clance (1985): few IP (less than 20), moderate IP (20–29), frequent IP (30–39), and intense IP (40–50). Within the current sample, CIPS-10 scores demonstrated good internal consistency with an alpha of .88 and omega of .90.

Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4)
The PHQ-4 is a 4-item, self-report assessment screening tool for depression and anxiety (Kroenke et al., 2009). The Likert-type responses are 0 (not at all), 1 (several days), 2 (more than half the days), and 3 (nearly every day). A total score of 3 or more, across both items, indicates the presence of moderate-to-severe symptoms (Kroenke et al., 2009). In meta-analyses, PHQ-4 scores have shown good internal consistency (α = .89) and have yielded valid and diagnostically accurate depression and anxiety scores (Khubchandani et al., 2016; Kroenke et al, 2009). Construct validity was supported using a varimax-rotated principal components analysis conducted on the four screening items (PHQ-2 and GAD-2), yielding two components that together explained 83% of the overall variance. Likewise, criterion validity was indicated by individuals diagnosed with depression or anxiety by a health care professional scoring significantly higher on the PHQ-2, GAD-2, and PHQ-4 compared to participants without a clinical diagnosis (Khubchandani et al., 2016). In the present sample, the PHQ-4 scores showed good internal consistency with an alpha score of .87 and omega of .84.

Data Analysis
Portions of this data set informed a previously published manuscript that focused on how self-compassion can mitigate IP’s negative relationship with counselor self-efficacy (Clarke et al., 2025). Although the two manuscripts share IP and self-compassion data, the current manuscript is distinct and extends this line of inquiry by its unique focus on the benefits of self-compassion for counselor resilience and mental health, despite the presence of IP.

All analyses were performed using SPSS (v29) with a p ≤ .01 benchmark to reduce the likelihood of Type I error and ensure that the most reliable effects are interpreted as statistically meaningful. Preliminary analyses were conducted to examine statistical assumptions for the mediation and MANOVA models. Normality was confirmed for all variables via Shapiro-Wilk (all p > .05). Box’s M test supported homogeneity of variance–covariance matrices (p = .021), and observations were independent. In addition to all VIF scores being < 2, no bivariate correlations exceeded r = .80, suggesting that multicollinearity was not a concern. Collectively, these results suggest that the data met all assumptions necessary for the planned analyses (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019).

We selected a regression-based mediation analysis because of the study’s focus on specific indirect effects of self-compassion and the moderate sample size, both of which made alternative analyses less ideal (Hayes, 2022). Because the variables tested were represented by composite scores rather than latent constructs, a mediation was statistically appropriate and provided a parsimonious method to examine self-compassion as a buffer for IP. Although cross-sectional mediation cannot establish temporal precedence or causation, it can identify statistical pathways that warrant future longitudinal investigation (Fairchild & McDaniel, 2017; Hayes, 2022). The 99% confidence intervals (CI) of the effects were derived from 10,000 bootstrap samples. If the upper and lower bounds of the CI did not include zero, they were considered statistically significant.

Finally, MANOVA was used to determine how the severity of IP affected its relationships with resilience, anxiety, depression, and self-compassion. The four levels of IP used in this analysis were defined as few, moderate, frequent, and intense IP according to the CIPS author (Clance, 1985). MANOVA effect size was described using partial eta squared values of 0.01 (small), 0.059 (medium), and 0.14 (large; Richardson, 2011). Cohen’s d was used to interpret effect sizes for follow up Tukey analyses, small effect (d = 0.2), medium (d = 0.5), and large (d ≥ 0.8; Gignac & Szodorai, 2016).

A priori power analysis for mediation effects (Fritz & MacKinnon, 2007) indicated a minimum sample of 148 participants would provide .80 power to detect medium-sized indirect effects using bias-corrected bootstrapping. For MANOVA with three groups and four dependent variables, G*Power indicated 158 participants would yield .80 power for detecting medium effects (f² = .25). Our sample of 281 exceeded both requirements.

Results

Descriptives
Pearson correlations indicated significant (< .01) bivariate relationships among self-compassion, impostor phenomenon, depression, anxiety, and academic resilience (Table 1). There were no significant differences in self-compassion, IP, resilience, anxiety, or depression across demographics or counseling program emphasis.

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations

	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4
1. Self-Compassion	3.06	0.74	–
2. Impostor Phenomenon	32.81	8.22	−.54*	–
3. Depression	1.27	1.60	−.42*	.35*	–
4. Anxiety	2.54	1.78	−.55*	.46*	.59*	–
5. Academic Resilience	27.66	6.51	.53*	−.36*	−.23*	−.40*

*p ≤ .01.

The sample included high levels of impostor phenomenon (M = 32.81, SD = 8.22), with over 65% falling in the frequent-to-intense range. IP showed strong negative correlations with self-compassion (r = −.54) and resilience (r = −.36), and strong positive correlations with anxiety (r = .46) and depression (r = .35).

Mediation Analysis
Mediation analyses were used to explore the statistical associations among IP, self-compassion, and the outcome variables of resilience, anxiety, and depression. Results indicated that self-compassion functioned as a statistical mediator in the relationships between IP and each outcome.

Figure 1

Mediation Analysis: Impostor and Resilience

*p ≤ .01

The first model (Figure 1) was significant, R² = .290, F(1, 278) = 59.78, p < .01. The total effect (c) of IP on academic resilience was negative and significant, β = −.362, SE = .126, t = −2.868, p < .01, suggesting that higher IP scores were associated with lower resilience. When self-compassion was included in the model, the direct effect (c′) of IP on resilience was no longer significant, β = −.110, SE = .060, t = −1.838, p = .07, consistent with full statistical mediation (Hayes, 2022). The indirect pathway through self-compassion represented 69.6% of the total standardized association. IP was negatively associated with self-compassion (β = −.535, p < .01; large effect), and self-compassion was positively associated with resilience (β = .472, p < .01; large effect). The overall indirect effect was significant (β = −.252, p < .01).

Figure 2

Mediation Analysis: Impostor and Anxiety

*p ≤ .01.

The second model (Figure 2) was significant, R² = .345, F(1, 278) = 73.159, p < .01. The total effect (c) of IP on anxiety was positive and significant, β = .464, SE = .053, t = 8.747, p < .01, indicating that higher IP scores were related to higher anxiety levels. After including self-compassion, the direct effect (c′) was reduced but remained significant, β = .236, SE = .057, t = 4.110, p < .01, suggesting partial statistical mediation. The indirect pathway through self-compassion accounted for 49.2% of the total standardized association. IP was negatively associated with self-compassion (β = −.535,p < .01; large effect), and self-compassion was negatively associated with anxiety (β = −.426, p < .01; medium effect). The overall indirect effect was significant, β = −.228, p < .01.

Figure 3

Mediation Analysis: Impostor and Depression

*p ≤ .01.

The third model (Figure 3) was significant, R² = .199, F(1, 278) = 34.484, p < .01. The total effect (c) of IP on depression was positive and significant, β = .345, SE = .056, t = 6.135, p < .01, indicating that higher IP scores were associated with higher depression levels. After accounting for self-compassion, the direct effect (c′) was reduced and no longer significant, β = .166, SE = .064, t = 2.611, p = .02, suggesting full statistical mediation. The indirect pathway through self-compassion represented 51.9% of the total standardized association. IP was negatively related to self-compassion (β = −.535, p < .01; large effect), and self-compassion was negatively related to depression (β = −.335, p < .01; medium effect). The overall indirect effect was significant, β = −.179, p < .01.

MANOVA

Self-compassion scores were divided into three levels (low, moderate, and high) as suggested by Neff (2003) to determine if the effect of self-compassion was consistent across each level. MANOVA analyses revealed that IP, resilience, depression, and anxiety each varied significantly based on level of self-compassion, F(8, 550) = 20.790, p < .01, Wilk’s Λ = 0.590, ηp² = .232, indicating a large effect size.

The MANOVA results revealed that IP scores varied according to level of self-compassion, F(2, 281) = 48.807, p < .01, ηp² = .260, with a large effect size. IP decreased significantly at each rising level of self-compassion, from low to moderate (d = 0.666, p < .01) and moderate to high (d = 0.987, p < .01), with medium and large effect sizes, respectively. The greatest decrease in IP was seen as self-compassion rose from moderate to high.

Resilience was significantly higher at each increasing level of self-compassion F(2, 281) = 39.323, p < .01, ηp² = .221, with a large overall effect size. Resilience rose linearly across each level of self-compassion, from low to moderate (d = −0.756, p < .01), and from moderate to high (d = −0.790, p < .01), each with a medium-high effect size.

Depression scores lowered significantly as self-compassion level increased, F(2, 281) = 20.232, p < .01, ηp² = .127, with an overall medium effect size. The decrease in depression was noted across levels of self-compassion, from low to moderate (d = 0.446, p < .01), and from moderate to high (d = 0.625, p < .01), each with a medium effect size. The largest decrease in depression was observed as self-compassion rose from moderate to high.

Anxiety scores decreased significantly as the level of self-compassion increased, F(2, 281) = 45.898, p < .01, ηp² = .248, with a large overall effect size. Anxiety scores were lower as self-compassion rose from low to moderate (d = 0.895, p < .01), and from moderate to high (d = 0.711, p < .01), with large and medium effect sizes, respectively. The largest decrease in anxiety was noted as self-compassion increased from low to moderate.

Discussion

Our findings indicate that self-compassion is a strong protective factor and may enhance resilience and promote mental health among developing counselors, despite impostor feelings. Specifically, self-compassion fully mediated the negative relationship between IP, resilience, and depression, while partially mediating the relationship between IP and anxiety. This suggests that even when experiencing IP, higher self-compassion may help to maintain greater resilience and significantly reduced anxiety and depression. The results are promising and suggest that cultivating self-compassion may facilitate professional growth by interrupting the IP cycle. Our results offer further insights into how self-compassion can support resilience and mental health (Housenecht & Swank, 2022).

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive analyses revealed a notably high prevalence of IP in the sample, with 96.1% (n = 270) reporting moderate to intense symptoms. Scores were skewed toward the higher end of the scale, with 65.1% of participants in the frequent-to-intense range and 21% in the highest category. Compared with earlier samples, these findings suggest that the severity of IP has increased substantially over the past 15 years (Roskowski, 2010; Tigranyan et al., 2021). For example, only 27.6% of a 2010 sample fell into the frequent-to-intense categories, compared with nearly two-thirds in the present study. Likewise, the proportion of students in the highest IP range has risen fivefold, from 4.1% in 2010 to 21% here. Although this increase may be influenced by broader cultural or educational factors, the trend underscores the importance of implementing effective coping strategies to support counselor well-being and persistence.

Consistently elevated IP scores across studies suggest that impostor feelings may be a common element of counselor development. Such feelings are often fueled by both internal and environmental pressures, particularly graduate students’ unreasonably high expectations of their performance and rapid development (Clance & Lawry, 2024). These unrealistic standards can generate unnecessary self-doubt, distorted self-assessments, and persistent self-criticism (Gadsby & Hohwy, 2024). Importantly, the current results indicate that self-compassion is a powerful counterbalance to IP. Higher self-compassion was associated with lower IP, anxiety, and depression, and with greater resilience, findings that align with previous research (Liu et al., 2023).

Mediation Models
Self-Compassion, IP, and Resilience
The first mediation analysis revealed that self-compassion fully mediated the negative relationship between IP and resilience. When accounting for self-compassion, the negative relationship between IP and resilience was rendered statistically non-significant. This outcome suggests that developing counselors with higher self-compassion may more easily adapt and recover when experiencing impostor-related distress. Self-compassion may assist key aspects of resilience, including stress management, coping with adversity, and maintaining a stable and supportive inner identity (Webb & Rosenbaum, 2019).

Although IP encourages harsh self-criticism and rumination on perceived failures, it is possible that through increased self-acceptance and soothing kindness, counselors can embody greater resilience when confronting areas of growth with less fear of failure. Additionally, a common humanity perspective can encourage acceptance of struggles as a normal part of counselor development and one shared by their peers. These soothing and normalizing aspects of self-compassion can encourage community rather than isolation when struggling, helping counselors to maintain resilience amidst adversity (Hou & Skovholt, 2020; Neff, 2023). Without effective coping practices, the challenges of counselor development can wear down resilience, creating vulnerability to mental distress, burnout, and counselor impairment (Cook et al., 2021; Gerber & Anaki, 2021).

Self-Compassion, IP, and Mental Health
Our results indicate that self-compassion is associated with less anxiety among those experiencing IP. Because anxiety is prevalent in this population and a primary emotional response to IP, efforts to increase self-compassion can have widely beneficial outcomes (Crego et al., 2022; Garba et al., 2024). The common humanity and mindfulness components of self-compassion may be critical to this outcome, as they can help limit emotional reactivity, normalize the IP experience, and reduce the isolation and fear of being exposed as an impostor (Clarke & Guida, 2025). This process involves mindfully recognizing that others share similar experiences and feelings, empowering developing counselors to seek support and reduce fear of failure (Neff, 2023). Likewise, practicing self-kindness may counter the harsh self-criticism associated with IP and encourage them to embrace the developmental process, including their imperfections (Patzak et al., 2017; Warren et al., 2016).

Anxiety and depression are closely linked and often co-occur (Beck & Alford, 2009). Though depression may not correlate as strongly with IP as anxiety does, it remains a common outcome (Garba et al., 2024). IP is persistent and sustained by cognitive distortions and misattributions, which also contribute to depressive thought patterns (Beck & Alford, 2009). However, our analysis revealed that self-compassion fully mediated the relationship between IP and depression. This suggests that a combination of mindful awareness and active self-kindness may facilitate more balanced self-assessment, countering perfectionism and harsh self-criticism commonly associated with IP (Clarke & Hartley, 2025; Pákozdy et al., 2023).

Although IP significantly predicted anxiety and depression, the buffering effect of self-compassion suggests that those with more compassionate self-perceptions may better tolerate the uncertainty and challenges common to counselor training. For example, those with a self-compassionate mindset may reinterpret failures as growth opportunities, a shift that may protect against anxious and depressive symptoms (Crego et al., 2022; Warren et al., 2016). These findings highlight the regulatory potential of self-compassion in reducing emotional reactivity to impostor-related distress.

Level of Self-Compassion in Relation to IP, Resilience, and Mental Health
MANOVA was utilized to determine whether the level of self-compassion (categorized as low, moderate, or high) was related to the level of IP, resilience, anxiety, and depression (Neff, 2003). Self-compassion had a significant positive relationship with mental health and resilience; however, the relationships varied significantly based on level of self-compassion (Figure 4). The results demonstrate that even lower levels of self-compassion were related to significantly lower IP, anxiety, and depression, as well as increased resilience. This pattern suggests that even modest improvements in self-compassion can correspond to improved well-being among developing counselors (Luo et al., 2023). For example, IP severity decreased significantly as self-compassion levels increased, revealing a linear reduction in IP from low to high self-compassion levels, with the most pronounced decrease occurring between the moderate and high categories.

Similarly, resilience scores also increased consistently across each level of self-compassion. The increase was linear, with the most substantial increase occurring when self-compassion rose from low to moderate. The steady increase in resilience across all self-compassion levels points to a possible dose-response relationship. Initial gains in self-compassion may bolster developing counselors’ ability to persevere through challenges (Neff et al., 2005), and interventions resulting in modest enhancements in self-compassion could yield significant improvements in resilience.

Figure 4

IP, Resilience, Depression, and Anxiety Across Levels of Self-Compassion

Although more variable, the association of self-compassion with anxiety and depression was similarly beneficial. Anxiety levels decreased significantly with each incremental increase in self-compassion, with the largest reduction occurring from low to moderate levels. This underscores the potential that even lower levels of self-compassion may still meaningfully alleviate anxiety. For depression, a significant decrease occurred across self-compassion levels, with the most substantial reduction noted as self-compassion increased from moderate to high. This suggests that self-compassion may interrupt the internal feedback loop of shame, self-criticism, and hopelessness that sustains depressive thinking in the context of IP.

These findings indicate that self-compassion is an important protective factor for developing counselor mental health. Contrary to expectations, even lower levels of self-compassion significantly relate to reduced IP, anxiety, and depression while increasing resilience (Luo et al., 2023). Integrating strategies to enhance self-compassion into counselor training programs could incrementally increase self-compassion, build emotional tolerance, and create a more stable internal environment from which resilience and well-being can emerge.

Implications and Future Directions for Counselor Development
Despite IP’s prevalence and association with diminished resilience and psychological distress, it remains underexamined in the counseling literature. Beyond a self-care strategy, self-compassion may build resilience and maintain mental health during and after counselor training. Integrating self-compassion into counselor education and early career development may cultivate a more supportive environment and provide counselors with evidence-based ways to manage IP and enhance resilience. Whereas, if left unaddressed, IP can lead to unnecessary distress, burnout, and professional attrition (Coaston & Lawrence, 2019; Ojeda, 2024).

Growing evidence suggests that self-compassion is vital for counselor development and ethical practice (Clarke et al., 2025; Coaston & Lawrence, 2019). The American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics (2014) emphasizes that professional counselors must engage in ongoing self-assessment and maintain their effectiveness through self-care practices. Similarly, CACREP (2023) standards require counselor education programs to integrate “self-care, self-awareness, and self-evaluation strategies for ethical and effective practice” (3.A.11.). Without meaningful coping strategies, IP can directly undermine these ethical mandates by diminishing well-being and distorting self-evaluation necessary for competent practice (Gadsby & Hohwy, 2024).

Regular engagement in reflective activities promoting balanced self-evaluation is essential to counselor development. If such exercises lack a compassionate focus, they may inadvertently reinforce impostor-related distortions by encouraging rumination and inaccurate self-critique. Matching reflective self-assessment with self-compassion practice may allow developing counselors to internalize feedback and move attention away from self-criticism and toward a growth mindset, transforming internal narratives dominated by IP (Warren et al., 2016).

Counselor educators and professional agencies can integrate self-compassion training through multiple pathways. Brief interventions, such as abbreviated versions of the Mindful Self-Compassion program (Germer & Neff, 2019), offer evidence-based approaches for enhancing counselor resilience. If limited by time and resources, supervisors and mentors can model self-compassionate practices by normalizing struggles, demonstrating constructive self-talk, and providing balanced growth-oriented feedback. The disclosure of faculty or supervisor IP experiences may be particularly powerful, reframing vulnerability and self-care as professional strengths rather than weaknesses.

Because IP is a contextual and environmentally fueled experience, counseling agencies and community mental health settings can foster organizational climates that prioritize compassion and collaboration and normalize challenges during the growth process (Coaston, 2019). When institutions reward openness, reflection, and learning from error, rather than perfection and productivity, developing counselors are more likely to engage in authentic self-assessment and seek help when struggling.

Early career peer support groups and compassion-focused initiatives can also counter the competitive, perfectionistic culture that sustains IP in professional practice (Clark et al., 2022). These approaches challenge the isolating belief that self-doubt is uniquely shameful, and foster community and belonging (Clarke & Guida, 2025; Hou & Skovholt, 2020). Future research should employ longitudinal and experimental designs to test targeted self-compassion interventions, clarifying causal relationships between self-compassion, resilience, and mental health outcomes in counselor education and professional contexts.

Clinical Supervision
Developmentally, the transition from classroom learning to applying theory and skills in clinical practice naturally provokes stress and anxiety (Skovholt & Trotter-Mathison, 2024). Although clinical supervision provides an ideal context for fostering openness and resilience (Coaston, 2019), experiencing IP may be a barrier to disclosing challenges because of emotional distress and fear of exposing perceived inadequacies (DeCandia Vitoria, 2021). Maintaining a façade of competence can compromise development and hinder the supervisory relationship (Thériault et al., 2009). These perfectionistic tendencies and IP are often motivated by context, suggesting that supervisors’ approaches may significantly alleviate these patterns.

Coaston (2019) provides a practical framework for applying self-compassion principles and philosophy in clinical supervision. Rooted in humanistic and developmental theory, this approach emphasizes that supervisors can accompany supervisees through the inevitable discomfort and vulnerability of professional growth by responding with compassion rather than judgment. By adopting a compassionate approach, the supervisory relationship can deepen, normalizing challenges and facilitating an authentic dialogue about IP-related uncertainties. In this way, clinical supervisors can address common cognitive and affective challenges.

A compassionate supervisory environment promotes balanced self-reflection and can reduce the shame-based fear of exposure that drives impostor defenses. This may allow supervisees to explore their conceptual skills openly, reframe unrealistic expectations, and persist despite challenges (Hou & Skovholt, 2020; Stoltenberg & McNeill, 2010). Future research can investigate how self-compassion contributes to the supervisory relationship, comfort with disclosure, and the integration of constructive feedback during supervised practice.

Clinical supervisors can also create a culture of shared vulnerability by modeling self-compassion and transparency about their own developmental struggles and self-doubt. This enables supervisees to internalize feedback and approach self-evaluation with less emotional reactivity. Enhancing collaboration within the alliance empowers supervisees to feel more competent in navigating their development independently (Skovholt & Trotter-Mathison, 2024). Given the potential benefits of this approach, we recommend that future research examine how embodiment and facilitation of self-compassion affect counselor development and well-being.

Limitations
Although the results of this study are encouraging, there are limitations. The cross-sectional design limits the data to a single point in time rather than showing fluctuations in self-compassion, IP, resilience, and mental health over time. Likewise, the present results do not establish causality. Replicating this study using a longitudinal approach can provide greater insight into these fluctuations. Furthermore, self-report measures introduce limitations such as social desirability bias and reliance on participant self-awareness. Likewise, individuals with a personal connection to IP may have been more likely to participate, potentially skewing results.

Participants were not asked about their matriculation status as counseling students, leaving their stage of development unknown. Future research should include clinical experience (i.e., none, practicum, internship) and matriculation status. This information would provide greater insight into how experience and counselor development interact with IP. The current study used a general IP assessment, while future research should use the Counselor Impostor Scale (CIS; Nguyen, 2023), which was published after data collection for this study was complete. The CIS is designed specifically for the counseling domain and could provide more nuanced insights. Additionally, because maladaptive coping strategies such as procrastination and perfectionism sustain IP, subsequent studies should explore these constructs, which could inform more targeted interventions.

Conclusion
The growth process during counselor training is inherently challenging and often gives rise to IP, which increases anxiety and depression while diminishing resilience. Self-compassion is a promising method for enhancing resilience and well-being, despite the presence of IP. Once learned, self-compassion is an accessible practice and relies on applying skills with which counselors are familiar, such as kindness and compassion toward themselves. The results of this study are encouraging and robust, suggesting that self-compassion can enhance resilience by supporting adaptive emotional regulation and fostering a growth-oriented mindset. Self-compassionate counselors can maintain their well-being despite experiencing IP. Importantly, the positive impact of self-compassion was consistent and significant even at lower levels, which is especially important given the prevalence and severity of IP among CITs. The findings support integrating self-compassion into counselor training and clinical supervision through modeling, training, and practice. This approach can provide effective coping for IP and improve resilience, mental health, and persistence.

Conflict of Interest and Funding Disclosure
The authors reported no conflict of interest
or funding contributions for the development
of this manuscript.

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Brian J. Clarke, PhD, NCC, LAC, is an assistant professor at the University of Arizona. Michael T. Hartley, PhD, CRC, is a professor at the University of Arizona. Austin M. Guida, PhD, NCC, LAC, is an assistant professor at Northern Arizona University. Correspondence may be addressed to Brian J. Clarke, Department of Disability and Psychoeducational Studies, College of Education, 1430 E. 2nd Street, Room 422, Tucson, AZ, 85721-0069, bclarke14@arizona.edu.

Social Connectedness as a Mediator of Racial Trauma Resulting From Exposure to Online Racism

Apr 1, 2026 | Volume 16 - Issue 1

Darius A. Green, Kade Stanzilis, Sierra Roach-Coye, Connor Sullivan

Online racism has increasingly become a mental health concern alongside rapid advancements in digital technology and social media use. This cross-sectional study investigated the associations between exposure to online racism, racial trauma, and social connectedness among a sample of 227 adult social media users in the United States. Using regression and mediation analyses, we found that both exposure to online racism and online social connectedness predicted increased racial trauma symptoms. Additionally, results indicated that the relationship between exposure to online racism was significantly mediated by online social connectedness. These results highlight the existence of online racism as a racially traumatic stressor and the importance of enhancing social connectedness among individuals who may be exposed to online racism.

Keywords: online racism, digital technology, social media, racial trauma, social connectedness

Digital technology use has skyrocketed with advancements in and accessibility of digital technology in the United States. According to Pew Research Center (2024), smartphone ownership has increased from 35% of adults in the United States in 2011 to 91% in 2024, with 41% of adults indicating that they are constantly using the internet (Gelles-Watnick, 2024). Additionally, social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok have expanded their integration into everyday lives across the globe. It is estimated that there are 4.9 billion social media users worldwide with an anticipated growth to 5.85 billion by 2027 (Wong, 2023). Although use of social media among adults may vary across platforms, estimates highlight that 83% of adults in the United States have used YouTube, and 68% of U.S. adults have used Facebook (Gottfried, 2024). Given the rapid development and expanding use of digital technology, it is essential for counselors to develop awareness of these technologies and their impact on client wellness.

Social media platforms have been the center of scrutiny for several reasons, including online aggression. Online aggression involves various problematic online behaviors such as online hate speech, harassment, and cyberbullying (Rudnicki et al., 2023). Although not a new phenomenon, online racism has emerged in research as a pervasive issue for social media users and People of the Global Majority (PGM; Bliuc et al., 2018; Keum & Miller, 2017). We use PGM to acknowledge Black, Indigenous, Asian, Southwest Asian and North African, and Latine populations that are marginalized by white supremacy despite making up most of the world’s population. Online racism has existed as a concern and stressor for PGM since the inception of the internet. Moreover, the threat of online racism for PGM requires that critical attention be paid to its impact (Keum & Miller, 2017).

As a chronic stressor rooted in racism, it is essential to analyze the connections between exposure to online racism and traumatic stress in order to develop recommendations for clinical practice (Hemmings & Evans, 2018). Moreover, it is essential to examine factors that contribute to the traumatic impact of online racism in our digital era (Keum & Miller, 2017). Notably, social connectedness is of particular interest given the emergence of digital resistance via online counterspaces as tools to combat online racism and its deleterious impact (Gomez & Cabrera, 2025; Hill, 2018; Mosley et al., 2021). Our study seeks to expand upon this growing literature base by examining the connection between exposure to online racism and racial trauma. Moreover, we examine the role of sense of social connectedness in the relationship between online racism and racial trauma.

Online Racism

Online racism refers to the use of electronic and digital communication and media that denigrate and discriminate against PGM because of their racial and ethnic identity (Bliuc et al., 2017; Volpe et al., 2021). Like offline racism, online racism creates a hierarchy of white supremacy (Volpe et al., 2021). Although online and offline racism have common roots, there are notable ways in which online racism is unique. For example, Keum and Miller (2017) noted that online racism is pervasive, permanent, and constantly evolving. Additionally, although PGM may often be the explicit targets of racism, social media allows for a broader audience, including members of a dominant racial identity, to be vicariously impacted by racist content. Moreover, algorithms and artificial intelligence may play a role in disseminating racist content to social media users, which can lead to widespread exposure (Fulmer, 2024; Volpe et al., 2021). As a result of these unique characteristics, the prevalence and impact of online racism may be wide-ranging, particularly as it relates to mental health.

Regarding the impact of online racism on mental health, several studies have documented a connection to a range of mental health symptoms. Most research on the topic has centered on children and adolescents, highlighting associations with anxiety, depression, stress- and trauma-related symptoms, as well as psychological distress (Del Toro & Wang, 2023; Thomas et al., 2023; Tynes et al., 2012). Emerging research on the mental health impact of online racism among adults has demonstrated connections to psychological distress and well-being (Cavalhieri et al., 2024; Keum & Hearns, 2021), substance use (Keum & Ahn, 2021; Keum & Cano, 2021; Keum et al., 2023), suicidal ideation (Keum, 2022), anxiety and depression (Cano et al., 2021; Layug et al., 2022), and trauma (Evans et al., 2024) among adults who experience online racism.

Racial Trauma

Given that racism is a chronic stressor with mental health implications, it is essential to consider the relevance of racial trauma. Racial trauma refers to the psychologically, emotionally, and physically injurious impacts resulting from exposure to racism that may be both directly and vicariously experienced (Carter, 2007; Comas-Díaz et al., 2019; Wright et al., 2023). Following exposure to threatening events, injury, or violence that are racist in nature, individuals may experience symptoms of intrusion, avoidance, altered cognition and mood, as well as impacted arousal and reactivity (American Psychiatric Association, 2022; Williams et al., 2022). Symptoms of racial trauma can also expand beyond these symptoms traditionally associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Williams et al., 2022). For example, some psychological instruments identify depression, intrusion, anger, hypervigilance, physical symptoms, self-esteem, and avoidance as core symptoms to focus on when assessing racial trauma (Carter et al., 2013; Carter, Kirkinis, & Johnson, 2020). Additionally, racial trauma may diverge from this limited categorization of symptoms to encapsulate the cumulative impact of racial discrimination (Williams et al., 2018). Moreover, the impact of racial trauma is also conceptualized as transgenerational (Comas-Díaz et al., 2019; Williams et al., 2018). It must also be noted that emerging research has highlighted that White individuals may endorse symptoms of racial trauma following exposure to racism (Carter & Kirkinis, 2021; Carter, Roberson, & Johnson, 2020). Notably for White individuals, less mature White racial identity attitudes may contribute to how racism and subsequent racial trauma symptoms are experienced (Carter, Roberson, & Johnson, 2020). Additionally, Carter and Kirkinis (2021) found vicarious exposure to racism to be the most frequently reported exposure to racism among White participants. This framing of racial trauma is essential to consider when dissecting how exposure to online racism may produce it.

Technological advancements in social media and digital technology allow for traumatic stress to occur from various manifestations of online racism. Akin to offline racism, online racism may include interpersonal encounters such as microaggressions and cyberbullying (Evans et al., 2024; Green et al., 2023; Keum, 2017). Racially traumatizing stressors may also include exposure to audiovisual media that depicts racialized violence. For example, exposure to police brutality toward Black Americans or imagery from the genocide of Palestinian people in Gaza may result in racial trauma (Green et al., 2024; Keum, 2017; Nasereddin, 2023). To date, there is a paucity of research that connects exposure to online racism and traumatic stress. A study examining race-related online traumatic events in a sample of Black and Latinx adolescents found that online exposure was related to increased PTSD symptoms (Tynes et al., 2019). Emerging research in a sample of young Black adults has also demonstrated connections between exposure to online racism and symptoms of trauma (Maxie-Moreman & Tynes, 2022). Additionally, a study with a sample of Black American adults found evidence of anticipatory traumatic reaction across audiovisual exposure, news reports, and imagined exposure to police violence (Green et al., 2024). Lastly, a study on cyberbullying victimization among PGM adults found that participants experienced racial discrimination that resulted in traumatic stress in alignment with racial trauma (Evans et al., 2024). These studies highlight that traumatic responses to online racism may result in experiences such as traditional symptoms of PTSD, a heightened sense of anticipated vulnerability to racialized violence, and attempts at suppressing the traumatic impact of online racism (Evans et al., 2024; Green et al., 2024; Maxie-Moreman & Tynes, 2022; Tynes et al., 2019). While these studies document the relationship between online racism and traumatic stress, it is important to note that the relationship between racial trauma and online racism has not yet been investigated.

Social Connectedness

French et al. (2020) proposed the psychology of radical healing as a liberatory and multicultural counseling framework for supporting healing from the traumatic impact of racism. This framework emphasizes resisting oppression and envisioning collective liberation despite the pervasive nature of oppressive systems like white supremacy (Adames et al., 2023; French et al., 2020). Moreover, the psychology of the radical healing framework identifies critical consciousness, cultural authenticity and self-knowledge, radical hope, collectivism, and strength and resistance as the foundations of radical healing (Adames et al., 2023; French et al., 2020). Based on the salience of community and social relationships in this framework (French et al., 2020; Mosley et al., 2020), we identified social connectedness as a relevant construct for exploration. Social connectedness is an aspect of sense of belonging and refers to the perceived emotional distance between oneself and others (Lee & Robbins, 1995). Social and peer connectedness are essential resources for coping with and alleviating racial trauma (Holmes et al., 2024). Conversely, having limited social connectedness that fosters radical healing may increase the likelihood of internalizing racist messages communicated online (Adames et al., 2023).

Existing data on offline experiences have indicated that the harmful impact of discrimination may be buffered by social connectedness and related variables. For example, increased social connectedness significantly moderated the relationship between discrimination and post-traumatic cognition among forcibly displaced Muslims (Sheikh et al. 2022). Specifically, lower levels of social connectedness moderated this relationship (Sheikh et al., 2022). In the context of online racism, it is possible that experiencing or witnessing online racism may result in greater emotional distance and disconnection. For example, a study on online racism among professional counselors found that greater exposure to online racism predicted decreased perception of inclusion (Green et al., 2023). Alternatively, seeking counterspaces, such as online communities and interactions that are characterized by cultural affirmation, sense of community and belonging, knowledge sharing, empowerment, resistance, and critical consciousness are theorized to be facilitative of social connectedness and wellness (Case & Hunter, 2012; Gomez & Cabrera, 2025; Hill, 2018; Lopez-Leon & Casanova, 2023). For example, participating with others in counterspaces may provide a sense of connectedness despite the isolating impact of experiencing racial microaggressions (Ong et al., 2018). Relatedly, social connectedness in these counterspaces may enhance radical healing through deconstructing racist narratives and countering self-blame (Adames et al., 2023). Emerging literature on radical healing and its overlap with online counterspaces highlights the importance of investigating how online connectedness might mediate racial trauma associated with online racism.

Present Study

Our study seeks to expand the contemporary literature of racial trauma to online contexts. Specifically, our study seeks answers to the following research questions: 1) What is the relationship between online exposure to racism, social connectedness, and racial trauma symptoms? and 2) Does social connectedness mediate the relationship between exposure to online racism and racial trauma? We hypothesize that 1) exposure to online racism will significantly predict racial trauma symptoms, 2) social connectedness will significantly predict racial trauma symptoms, and 3) social connectedness will significantly mediate the relationship between online racism and racial trauma symptoms.

Methods

Procedures
After receiving IRB approval, participants were recruited to participate in our cross-sectional study using convenience sampling using the MTurk platform. Inclusion criteria included being a U.S. resident, being at least 18 years old, and self-identifying as using social media. A total of 518 participants accessed our online survey. We implemented a racial identity quota to ensure representation of PGM participants. The racial identity quota limited the number of White participants to 170 to prevent oversampling. We chose 170 as a target in an attempt to achieve a final sample comprising approximately 60% White participants to reflect the population of the United States in 2020 (Jones et al., 2021). As a result, a total of 292 participants completed the online survey. Participant responses were screened to remove participants who failed two validity check items, resulting in the removal of 18 participant responses. We took a conservative approach and removed an additional 47 responses from the dataset that were flagged by Qualtrics as potential duplicate responses, leaving a total of 227 participant responses. Participants who completed the online survey were compensated $8.

Participants
Participant age ranged from 19 to 70 years (M = 33.33; SD = 9.04). Regarding race, 19 (8.37%) were Asian, 26 (11.45%) were Black, one (0.44%) was Latinx, one (0.44%) was Middle Eastern and North African, five (2.20%) were Native or Indigenous American, 170 (74.89%) were White, three (1.32%) were multiracial, and two (0.88%) did not indicate their race. As for gender, 164 (72.57%) identified as cisgender men and 62 (27.43%) identified as cisgender women. One (0.44%) had less than a high school diploma or equivalent, seven (3.08%) were high school graduates, seven (3.08%) had some college experience with no degree, 13 (5.73%) had an associate degree, 160 (70.48%) had a bachelor’s degree, 36 (15.68%) had a master’s degree, and three (1.32%) had a doctoral degree. Regarding social media use, one (0.44%) reported never using social media, 13 (5.73%) reported using social media once a week, 44 (19.38%) used social media 2–3 times per week, 24 (10.57%) used social media 4–6 times per week, and 145 (63.88%) used social media daily. Of specific social media platforms, 30 (13.22%) used Discord, 197 (86.78%) used Facebook, 201 (88.55%) used Instagram, 67 (29.52%) used LinkedIn, 49 (21.59%) used Reddit, 41 (20.70%) used Threads, 107 (47.14%) used TikTok, nine (3.96%) used Tumblr, 128 (56.39%) used Twitter/X, and 193 (85.02%) used YouTube.

Measures
Perceived Online Racism
We used the 15-item Perceived Online Racism-Short Form (PORS-SF) to measure experiences of and exposure to online racist interactions and content (Keum, 2021; Keum & Miller, 2017). Participant scores ranged from 1 (not at all) to 4 (extremely). Sample items from the PORS-SF include items such as “received racist insults regarding my online profile (e.g., profile pictures, user ID)” and “seen online videos (e.g., YouTube) that portray my racial/ethnic group negatively” (Keum, 2021; Keum & Miller, 2017). Cronbach’s α for the PORS-SF ranged from .91 to .93 in its validation and was .93 in the current sample (Keum, 2021).

Social Connectedness
The 8-item Social Connectedness Scale (Lee & Robbins, 1995) was used to measure social connectedness in offline and online environments. Scores range from 1 (agree) to 6 (disagree) and were summed to compute a total score. Scores on the scale correspond to the sense of social disconnectedness and detachment experienced, with higher scores indicating greater disconnectedness and detachment (Lee & Robbins, 1995). Reliability for the Social Connectedness Scale was α = .91 in a sample of university students (Lee & Robbins, 1995). To distinguish between offline and online social connectedness, participants completed two versions of the Social Connectedness Scale, one with instructions to focus on offline relationships and another with instructions to focus on online relationships. Example items included, “I feel disconnected from the world around me” and “I catch myself losing all sense of connectedness with society.” Cronbach’s α on the Social Connectedness Scale for the current sample was .94 for both offline and online scores.

Racial Trauma
The 30-item Racial Trauma Scale (Williams et al., 2022) was used to measure participants’ experiences and symptoms of racial trauma. Specifically, the Racial Trauma Scale measures experiences related to impact on safety, negative cognition, and difficulty in coping. Participant responses ranged on each item from 1 (not at all) to 4 (extremely) and were summed for a total score. Sample items included, “thinking the world is unsafe,” “having difficulties connecting with other people,” and “having nightmares about discrimination.” White participants were included in the development of the Racial Trauma Scale and were found to report fewer symptoms of racial trauma compared to PGM (Williams et al., 2022). Internal consistency from three diverse samples of MTurk users for the Racial Trauma Scale ranged from α = .96 to .97. Cronbach’s α for the Racial Trauma Scale in the current sample was .97.

Analytic Plan
Preliminary and regression analyses were conducted using Stata (Version 18.5). We conducted a multiple regression analysis to examine the relationship between perceived online racism and social connectedness on racial trauma. Additionally, we conducted a mediation analysis to determine the mediating role of social connectedness on the relationship between perceived online racism and racial trauma. We used a significance level of α = .05 and pairwise exclusion for each of the analyses. Assumptions for normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity were tested. Visual inspection of residuals demonstrated no evidence of violations of assumptions of normality, linearity, or homoscedasticity. Participant data showed no evidence of multicollinearity as evidenced by variation inflation factor values being below 10 and tolerance values being above .1; however, offline social connectedness was removed from multiple regression analyses because of the high correlation with online social connectedness (r = .91) as shown in Table 1 (Cohen et al., 2003; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019).

Table 1

Correlations of Variables

Variable	M	SD	1	2	3
1. Online Social Connectedness	32.48	9.20
2. Offline Social Connectedness	32.32	9.67	.91***
3. Online Racism	51.78	11.29	.61***	.60***
4. Racial Trauma	77.96	20.65	.71***	.68***	.72***

Note. N = 186.
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Results

Descriptive Analysis
Prior to our primary analyses, we conducted a descriptive analysis for participant responses on the PORS-SF, the Racial Trauma Scale, and the Social Connectedness Scale. For the PORS-SF, participants’ scores ranged from 15 to 69 with a mean of 51.88 and standard deviation of 10.94. Participant scores on the Racial Trauma Scale ranged from 30 to 120 with a mean of 78.40 and standard deviation of 20.63. Participant scores on the Social Connectedness Scale ranged from 8 to 47 with a mean of 32.55 and a standard deviation of 9.28.

Regression Analyses
We used regression analyses to answer our first research question: What is the relationship between online exposure to racism, social connectedness, and racial trauma symptoms? We hypothesized that 1) online racism exposure and 2) social connectedness would significantly predict racial trauma symptoms. Results from the hierarchical multiple regression model analyzing the impact of social connectedness and exposure to online racism on racial trauma symptoms while controlling for race, gender, education, age, and frequency of social media use are presented in Table 2. Among the control variables, age (β = −.19, p = .010) and frequency of social media use (β = −.35, p < .001) significantly predicted less racial trauma in the first step of the model. Race, gender, and education did not significantly predict racial trauma symptoms. There was a significant increase when adding social connectedness and online racism in the second step of the model for predicting racial trauma, F(7, 178) = 47.81, p < .001, ΔR² = .44. Online social connectedness (β = .38, p < .001) and online racism (ꞵ = .45, p < .001) predicted greater racial trauma symptoms. Step 2 accounted for 66% of variance in racial trauma symptoms with the addition of perceived online racism and online social connectedness accounting for a 44% increase in explained variance. Results from the regression analyses demonstrated support for our first two hypotheses that online exposure to racism and social connectedness would significantly predict racial trauma symptoms.

Table 2

Regression Coefficients of Variables on Racial Trauma

Variable	Step 1		Step 2
Variable	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β
Age	−0.40 (0.15)	−.19**	−0.14 (0.10)	−.07
Race
White (ref)
PGM	3.49 (3.22)	.08	0.98 (2.15)	.02
Gender
Cisgender Man (ref)
Cisgender Woman	−3.66 (3.24)	−.08	1.28 (2.18)	.03
Education
> Bachelors (ref)
< Bachelors	3.22 (4.47)	.05	−2.62 (3.02)	−.04
Social Media Use
> Daily (ref)
Daily	−15.20 (3.01)	−.35***	−5.07 (2.11)	−.12*
Online Social Connectedness			0.86 (0.13)	.38***
Online Racism			0.83 (0.11)	.45***

R²	.21***		.65***
ΔR²			.44***

Note. N = 185.
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Mediation Analysis
We conducted a simple mediation analysis using Hayes (2018) PROCESS macro (Version 5.0) in RStudio (Version 4.5) to answer our second research question: Does social connectedness mediate the relationship between exposure to online racism and racial trauma? Results from the mediation analysis are presented in Table 3 and depicted in Figure 1. The total effect of online racism exposure on racial trauma was significant, b = 1.32, β = .72, SE = .09, 95% CI [1.13, 1.50], R² = .52. The indirect effect of exposure to online racism on racial trauma through online social connectedness was significant, b = .47, β = .26, SE = .13, bootstrapped 95% CI [0.24, 0.73]. Confirming our third hypothesis, these results indicate that online social connectedness significantly mediated the relationship between online racism and racial trauma among participants.

Table 3

Results of Mediation Analysis

Path	b	SE	β	t	R²	95% CI
Path	b	SE	β	t	R²	LL	UL
Online racism → Social connectedness (a)	0.50	.05	.61***	10.44	.37	0.40	0.59
Social connectedness → Racial trauma (b)	0.95	.13	.70***	7.49		0.70	1.20
Online racism → Racial trauma (c’)	0.85	.10	.72***	8.25		0.65	1.05
Total Effect	1.32	.09	.72***	14.18	.52	1.14	1.50
Indirect Effect	0.47	.13	.26			0.13	0.40

Note. N = 185. The indirect effect was estimated using 10,000 bootstrap samples.
***p < .001.

Figure 1

Mediation Model of Relationships Between Online Racism, Online Social Connectedness, and Racial Trauma

Note. Coefficients presented are unstandardized regression coefficients of direct effects. Confidence interval for the indirect effect is a bootstrapped confidence interval using 10,000 samples.
***p < .001.

Discussion

Prior and emerging literature has documented the significant impact of online racism on mental health and wellness, such as anxiety, depression, stress- and trauma-related symptoms, and psychological distress among children and adolescents (Del Toro & Wang, 2023; Thomas et al., 2023; Tynes et al., 2012) as well as emerging findings of psychological distress, substance use, suicidal ideation, anxiety, and depression among adults (Cano et al., 2021; Cavalhieri et al., 2024; Keum, 2022; Keum & Ahn, 2021; Keum & Cano, 2021; Keum et al., 2023; Keum & Hearns, 2021; Layug et al., 2022). This study sought to build upon these findings to determine if online racism exists as a racially traumatic stressor that may lead to the development of symptoms of racial trauma. Confirming our first hypothesis, the results of our study demonstrated that exposure to online racism was associated with increased racial trauma symptoms among participants. Thus, our findings indicate that such exposure contributes to emotional and psychological injury upon individuals’ racial identity. Our study aligns with emerging research on adults that has demonstrated exposure to racism via online communication and media as a traumatic stressor (Evans et al., 2024; Green et al., 2024; Maxie-Moreman & Tynes, 2022).

Our study builds upon existing research by highlighting that exposure to online racism may be experienced as racially traumatizing by PGM as well as by White individuals. Although not part of our primary research question and analysis, our regression analysis found no statistically significant difference in racial trauma between White and PGM participants. This finding should be interpreted with nuance given that White individuals do not experience racism as a function of white supremacy. Echoing findings from Carter, Roberson, and Johnson (2020) and Carter and Kirkinis (2021), White individuals’ quantitative endorsement of racial trauma from vicarious exposure to racism may be qualitatively different from experiences of PGM. Specifically, racial identity attitudes may play a role in how White individuals perceive racism and experience subsequent distress (Carter, Roberson, & Johnson, 2020). Prior research highlights that White individuals with greater racial awareness endorse fewer racial trauma symptoms despite reporting vicarious exposure to racism (Carter, Roberson, & Johnson, 2020). Moreover, White individuals with color-evasive racial attitudes may view White individuals as targets of online racism (Green et al., 2023). Thus, this finding may be best understood as being connected to racial attitudes that impact measurement of racial trauma symptoms rather than equating White and PGM participant experiences.

Our study also sought to examine the relationship and mediating role of social connectedness with online racism and racial trauma. Confirming our second hypothesis, we found that online social connectedness both significantly predicted racial trauma in our regression model and significantly mediated the relationship between online racism and racial trauma. These findings suggest that feeling disconnected in online contexts following exposure to online racism may relate to increased symptoms of racial trauma. Additionally, individuals who experience challenges in finding and maintaining connectedness and supportive communities with others may be at greater risk of developing racial trauma symptoms. This aligns with findings of suppression and social withdrawal following experiences of racialized cybervictimization (Evans et al., 2024). Conversely, our findings highlight that stronger social connectedness after exposure to online racism may relate to decreased racial trauma symptoms. These findings emphasize the value of resources like online counterspaces that may foster racial identity affirmation, sense of community, social support, and resistance to online racism (Case & Hunter, 2012; Gomez & Cabrera, 2025; Lopez-Leon & Casanova, 2023). In summary, this study highlights the important roles of online interactions, relationships, and communities as they relate to the racial trauma experienced following exposure to online racism.

Clinical Implications and Future Research
As discussed above, our study contributes to existing literature on online racism and symptoms of mental health and wellness. Findings from our study indicate that online racism may be experienced as a racially traumatic stressor. This is noted in participant scores for racial trauma (M = 78.40; SD = 20.63) being above the established clinical cut-off score of 48 (Williams et al., 2022). Thus, counselors should integrate experiences of online racism into assessment and interventions with adult clients, particularly at times when online racist content may be prevalent. This assessment and acknowledgement can incentivize counselors to focus on processing these traumatic experiences. For example, a counselor naming a client’s response as part of racial trauma can support validating their experiences following exposure. Moreover, this may also support client healing by attributing their intrapsychic racial trauma symptoms as responses to external racism while reducing the odds of internalizing racism (Adames et al., 2023). Likewise, counselors can focus on enhancing client social connectedness as a potential protective factor that may support reducing client experiences of self-blame and social withdrawal (Adames et al., 2023; Evans et al., 2024). Counselors may also consider supporting clients in developing digital hygiene to optimize self-care in their therapeutic work.

Considering the significance of social connectedness as a protective factor, counselors can advocate for clients experiencing racial trauma from online racism to actively participate in digital counterspaces that foster social connectedness (Gomez & Cabrera, 2025; Mosley et al., 2021). This may occur through traditional modalities of counseling such as group counseling via telehealth or other community-developed groups across social media platforms. Counselors may encourage client participation in such digital counterspaces during treatment to empower them to engage in community care as a compliment to self-care behaviors. Additionally, these client recommendations may aid in developing critical consciousness, a sense of belonging with others, and in developing resistance strategies despite experiences of online racism (Case & Hunter, 2012; Gomez & Cabrera, 2025; Lopez-Leon & Casanova, 2023). Beyond individual counseling, it is imperative that counselors engage in community-level advocacy in addressing online racism. For example, facilitating workshops, public education, and creating safe spaces in school or university settings may support vulnerable populations in building awareness around online racism and its impact. Such spaces can offer safety and validation of racial trauma experiences (Wright et al., 2023). Moreover, these spaces and events can provide critical insight toward preventing engagement in online racism and healing from its traumatic impact (Wright et al., 2023).

Lastly, counselors might consider ways to support the wellness of White clients who experience distress related to online racism. Counselors should emphasize development in White racial identity and coping practices to navigate vicarious exposure to racism online. This might include supporting White clients in reshaping their cognition of their adverse reactions toward a more critical understanding of white supremacy (Carter, Roberson, & Johnson, 2020). Counselors are encouraged to address color-evasive racial attitudes expressed by White clients during sessions to enhance critical consciousness in alignment with theory on radical healing (Adames et al., 2023; French et al., 2020; Green et al., 2023). Counselors should also encourage White clients who are struggling with their adverse reactions to online racism to build relationships with other White individuals to enhance social connectedness as it pertains to critical consciousness raising. Supporting White clients in appropriately attributing their adverse experiences may also aid in reducing online racism toward PGM. For example, a White client who experiences online backlash from engaging in online racism may attribute their adverse experience to reverse racism, resulting in further engagement in online racism (Green et al., 2023).

Future research may build upon our study by more specifically investigating the role of counterspaces as they relate to mental health, wellness, and exposure to online racism and other forms of online hate. Such research should consider the significance of qualitative methodologies to better understand the lived experiences of coping and resisting through social resources that may reduce the impact of online racism. Further quantitative research on the racial trauma of online racism might compare differences in coping between White and PGM populations to better understand ways for counselors to enhance support for those impacted by online racism. Additionally, it is important to examine online racism experienced by online racial justice activists who may be prone to such exposure. Such research might compare racial trauma symptoms experienced because of online and offline exposure to racism to identify ways in which counselors can support the wellness of those who engage in racial justice efforts via social media and other forms of digital technology. Lastly, future research might examine the impact of long-term exposure to racially traumatizing online content on mental health and wellness in order to better understand the transgenerational impact of online racism alongside advancements in digital technology. Such research might specifically study social, cognitive, and behavioral changes across the lifespan, particularly for parents of PGM children, adolescents, and emerging adults.

Limitations
One limitation of this study lies in its cross-sectional nature. Although the use of mediation analysis was used to better understand how exposure to online racism may result in decreased social connectedness that in turn increases racial trauma symptoms, the cross-sectional design does not allow for causal conclusions. As a result, it is unknown if lower or greater social connectedness reported by participants was preexisting or the result of exposure to online racism. Another limitation of the study lies in the sampling method. First, the use of MTurk as a platform to recruit participants likely introduced bias, particularly given the financial incentive for participants to complete the study. We attempted to mitigate some bias through use of two validity check items in the online survey; however, this may not have counteracted the potential for bias to influence participant data. In addition to the use of convenience sampling with monetary incentive, the use of a quota system introduced a bias in the results for White participants who completed the survey early on while PGM participants did not experience restrictions or any subsequent bias in participation. Although the quota was intended to limit the overrepresentation of White participants that may have occurred through sampling via MTurk, it also introduced uncontrolled bias into the results. Moreover, we did not include exposure to online racism or experiences of racial trauma as criteria in the recruitment process. Using a narrower sample would have been more consistent with the underlying theory of racial trauma and could produce different results. As a result, caution should be taken in generalizing this study’s findings. Future research might mitigate such bias by sampling from multiple sources, such as directly recruiting from social media platform users and groups, to better prevent issues of oversampling as it relates to racial identity.

Conclusion

Our study sought to expand emerging research on exposure to online racism by examining how it relates to racial trauma among adults. Moreover, our study contributed to this emerging research by highlighting the significance of online social connectedness as a mediating variable in the relationship between online racism and racial trauma. Our study indicates that online racism may exist as a racially traumatic stressor that is essential for counselors to attend to in clinical practice for clients who may be vulnerable to such exposure. Lastly, our findings suggest that enhancing sense of connectedness may be an avenue for supporting client wellness among those who experience racial trauma from online racism exposure.

Conflict of Interest and Funding Disclosure
The authors reported no conflict of interest
or funding contributions for the development
of this manuscript.

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Darius A. Green, PhD, NCC, LPCC, is an assistant professor at Bowie State University. Kade Stanzilis, MA, LPCC, is a graduate researcher at the University of Colorado Colorado Springs. Sierra Roach-Coye, MSW, LSW, is a doctoral candidate at Denver University. Connor Sullivan, MA, LPCC, is a graduate researcher at the University of Colorado Colorado Springs. Correspondence may be addressed to Darius A. Green, Department of Counseling and Psychological Studies, Bowie State University, 14000 Jericho Park Road, Bowie, MD, 20715, dgreen2@bowiestate.edu.

Book Review—When the Subject Is Rape: A Guide for Male Partners, Friends & Family Members

Mar 26, 2026 | Book Reviews

by Alan W. McEvoy, PhD

There have been strong recent shifts in our culture concerning sexual assault. Individuals who have experienced sexual assault are coming forward and demanding justice for the harm done. While this is a positive change, it can leave the men in their lives unsure of what support would be most helpful. The title reviewed here explores this very topic and helps men find ways to better understand and support all victims of sexual assault, though McEvoy focuses mainly on female victims of sexual assault.

When the Subject Is Rape explores the multiple avenues of support that can assist someone who has experienced sexual assault and imparts advice to the male support people in their lives. Author Alan W. McEvoy also outlines practical tips like conversation topics and how to handle court or medical proceedings, while also giving more abstract suggestions and challenges for inner exploration. This book also addresses male support people’s common responses and explains how they may not be helpful in certain situations. At the end of the book, the author includes contact information for different help lines and centers for sexual assault for the United States and other countries and regions. This can be a tremendous resource for so many types of male allies and support people.

A major strength of this book is the psychoeducation around sexual assault. This includes definitions of sexual assault and other medical or legal terms that an individual might encounter. Other strengths include outlining what a sexual assault victim may go through in the legal system and how a support person can assist in some of these events. The author also addresses the different responses that an individual might display after an assault and outlines the decision-making process that these individuals go through regarding next steps and protecting their safety.

While this book offers many helpful insights and much guidance, I find it would benefit from the inclusion of first-hand accounts or stories. All of the information shared with the reader is seemingly based on the author’s opinion or experience as a clinician, but this is not fully explained by the author. First-hand accounts could strengthen and validate the advice that McEvoy shares with his readers. Additionally, the author discusses many difficult dynamics within sexual assault, including hate crimes and assault by a sibling. While these topics are incredibly important to explore and address, there are some topics (assault by a parent/stepparent), that I believe could be addressed more thoroughly by the author.

This book could have strong positive impacts in counseling practice. While there are many helpful resources for clients who are the survivors of sexual assault, this title offers practical advice for men who are a part of a survivor’s support network. When these clients come into our office, it can be hard to find resources that address their unique needs. McEvoy’s book offers both clients and clinicians a road map of what to expect as they assist someone through their grief and trauma, and practical tips on what to do in certain situations. In my own practice, I would use this title as a reference for clients who care for someone who experienced sexual assault, and as a resource that a victim of sexual assault could give to a loved one so they can better assist during recovery.

Overall, When the Subject Is Rape is a helpful starting point for all types of support people, not just men. This includes mental health professionals working with victims of sexual assault and family members or friends who want to better understand and assist someone they love as they navigate the next stages of their life following sexual assault.

McEvoy, A. W. (2023). When the subject is rape: A guide for male partners, friends & family members. Square One Publishers.

Reviewed by: Amanda Condic, MA, NCC, LPC

Bridging Gaps, Building Futures
An Introduction to the Special Issue on Scholarship of the NBCCF Minority Fellowship Program

Dec 22, 2025 | Volume 15 - Issue 4

Lotes Nelson, Clark D. Ausloos, Kirsis A. Dipre

This special issue of The Professional Counselor (TPC) celebrates the enduring legacy of the NBCC Foundation’s Minority Fellowship Program (MFP) and the remarkable contributions of its Fellows to the counseling profession. Guided by the overarching theme Bridging Gaps, Building Futures, this issue reflects how MFP scholars continue to advance equity, belonging, and healing across diverse communities through research, practice, and advocacy. Each article in this collection represents both an individual and collective commitment to closing the gap between awareness and action, transforming knowledge into meaningful and sustainable change. Building upon this collective vision, the selected works in this special issue are organized around two interwoven subthemes: Threads of Transformation and Scholarship as Bridgework. Together, these sections illuminate the dynamic ways in which counselors, counselor educators, and researchers are bridging identity, belonging, and access while advancing scholarship that heals, connects, and transforms. Collectively, these themes invite readers to consider how transformation and bridgework function as inseparable elements of professional identity—threads woven through practice, teaching, and research. In this spirit, the articles in this issue form a tapestry of insight and inspiration, reminding us that meaningful change emerges through the ongoing continuum of reflection, action, and connection that lies at the heart of the counseling profession.

Threads of Transformation
This first theme, Threads of Transformation, captures how MFP Fellows weave identity, belonging, and access into their research, teaching, and clinical practice. Across schools, families, and communities, these scholars actively transform systems of care into more inclusive, culturally responsive, and healing-centered practices. Their work reflects the commitment of MFP Fellows to bridge awareness with action and to ensure that nondominant populations are supported in spaces that have too often excluded them, including within helping professions. The studies that comprise this theme speak to the transformative power of belonging, connection, celebrating cultural identity, and fostering resilience and growth across generations and communities.

In “A Pilot Study Examining Xinachtli: A Gender-Based Culturally Responsive Group Curriculum for Chicana, Latina, and Indigenous Secondary Students,” Vanessa Placeres and colleagues explore how culturally grounded interventions can serve as restorative spaces for Chicana, Latina, and Indigenous (CLI) youth. Guided by a healing-informed and gender-responsive framework, Xinachtli—meaning “germinating seed” in Nahuatl—nurtures identity development, life skills, and a sense of belonging among middle and high school students. The study’s preliminary outcomes underscore the feasibility of implementing culturally responsive group counseling within K–12 schools and affirm the importance of integrating feminist traditions in CLI youth development.

In “Parenting Across Racial Lines: The Lived Experiences of Transracially Adoptive Parents of Black Children,” Charmaine Conner and Natalya Lindo explore transformation within the family system itself. Using a transcendental phenomenological approach grounded in the Cultural-Racial Identity Model, the authors explore how White parents raising Black children navigate cultural humility, trauma, and identity development. Participants’ reflections reveal both the challenges of transracial parenting and the transformative potential of intentional cultural socialization, advocacy, and learning. Through their process of “becoming,” these parents model transformation through love, humility, and accountability.

In “See the Girl: Girls’ Perceptions of Listening and Helpfulness in a Relational–Cultural Theory Grounded School-Based Counseling Program,” Ne’Shaun Borden and colleagues extend this theme by centering the lived experiences of African American girls in elementary school. Drawing on years of program data from See the Girl: In Elementary, findings reveal that authentic presence, empathy, and support were key to the girls’ sense of being heard and valued. Through the lens of Relational–Cultural Theory, this study reminds us that relational connection is itself a pathway to belonging and healing.

In “‘Deep in the Hollers’: LGBTQ+ Narratives of Addiction and Recovery in Appalachia,” Jacob Perkins and Harley Locklear amplify voices from rural queer communities navigating addiction and recovery. Through narrative inquiry, Perkins captures stories of resilience, chosen family, and the reimagining of wellness amid systemic and cultural marginalization. Participants’ narratives illuminate how isolation, stigma, and restrictive norms around identity and substance use intersect in rural regions. The article also demonstrates that recovery can emerge from solidarity and creative redefinitions of care. By positioning queer Appalachian experiences as central rather than peripheral, this work transforms dominant understandings of addiction recovery and challenges counselors to consider how regional identity, sexuality, and belonging intersect within the healing process.

Scholarship as Bridgework
The second theme, Scholarship as Bridgework, highlights how each article contributes to collective equity and healing in our profession, inviting us to center those in the margins and amplify their voices through our privileged positions as counselors, educators, supervisors and scholars.

In “Associations Between Coping and Suicide Risk Among Emerging Adults of Asian Descent,” Afroze Shaikh and colleagues use research as a tool to bridge the lack of knowledge and amplify the invisible fight with suicidality among emerging adults of Asian descent. Grounded in the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide, this quantitative study examines the associations between coping orientations (e.g., problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidant) and strategies (e.g., gratitude, self-compassion, and search for meaning in life) and suicide risk (e.g., perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness). The findings underscore the importance of culturally responsive coping interventions as bridges toward understanding and addressing suicide risk factors, urging us to center and uplift the voices of those made invisible by dominant societal norms and expectations.

Finally, Shadin Atiyeh examines the challenges and strategies employed by counselor educators in training students to work effectively with refugee populations in “Preparing Counseling Students to Work With Refugees: A Descriptive Analysis.” Utilizing a qualitative descriptive analysis, Atiyeh has identified several barriers to effective training in CACREP-accredited master’s programs across the United States. These include (a) perceived limited relevance of the topic, (b) time constraints within courses, and (c) the complexity of addressing refugee issues. The findings call us to embrace our collective responsibility to re-envision the counseling curriculum and implement creative, forward-thinking teaching practices that transcend institutional barriers, ensuring that students are well prepared to address the distinctive mental health needs of refugee populations.

Conclusion

Collectively, MFP Fellows demonstrate that culturally responsive practice is an active reimagining of what it means to belong, to heal, and to thrive. The Threads of Transformation woven throughout these studies remind us that when counselors and educators engage with identity and belonging as foundations of wellness, they reshape the systems that define who is seen, valued, and supported in our profession. Through the lens of Scholarship as Bridgework, these articles extend that vision by building bridges between knowledge, practice, and purpose. Our shared purpose is to prepare future counselors with the knowledge and skills to support marginalized and underserved communities while integrating equity-focused content across counseling curricula to promote social justice and collective healing. As you explore this special issue, we invite you to reflect on how these perspectives can inspire your own practice, teaching, and advocacy. What bridges can you build to move from awareness to action, and how can your work contribute to the elimination of mental health disparities? Our hope is that this collection not only informs but also inspires continued commitment to equity, belonging, and transformation within the counseling profession. Together, these works remind us that by bridging gaps and building worlds, we collectively transform the future of counseling.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Lotes Nelson (she/her/siya), PhD, NCC, ACS, LCMHC-S, is an associate professor in the counselor education and supervision program at the University of the Cumberlands and was proud to be a 2015 Mental Health Counseling Doctoral Fellow with the NBCCF Minority Fellowship Program. She remains deeply connected to the NBCC Foundation as a mentor, scholarship reviewer, journal guest co-editor, and contributor to Foundation initiatives, and she is honored to continue giving back to the program that shaped her. Dr. Nelson is co-editor of Multicultural Counseling: Responding with Cultural Humility, Empathy, & Advocacy and brings a strong commitment to uplifting marginalized and underserved communities through culturally responsive counseling, social justice advocacy, and leadership development. Her work focuses on counselor resilience, identity formation, and preparing future counselors and counselor educators to lead with equity, compassion, and purpose.

Clark D. Ausloos (he/him), PhD, NCC, LPC, LPCC, LSC, is an assistant professor in the counseling department at Oakland University, an NBCCF MFP Alumnus (2019 Mental Health Counseling Doctoral Fellow), and Past- Chairperson of the NBCCF MFP Advisory Council. His research interests center on supporting nondominant populations, particularly queer and trans youth, and enhancing cultural responsivity in counselor education preparation. Dr. Ausloos has authored numerous peer-reviewed manuscripts and delivered extensive conference presentations. He serves in multiple professional leadership roles, including as President-Elect of the Society for Sexual, Affectional, Intersex, and Gender Expansive Identities (SAIGE), in addition to maintaining an active clinical practice serving clients in Ohio and Michigan.

Kirsis A. Dipre (she/her/ella), PhD, NCC, LPC (IL), is an assistant professor in the counselor education department at Northeastern Illinois University and a licensed professional counselor. Dr. Dipre is dedicated to supporting the development and training of culturally responsive counselors while providing mental health services to underserved populations, centering advocacy and social justice throughout the process. Her scholarly, teaching, service, mentoring, and supervisory work is collectively aimed at increasing access to mental health care, challenging structural barriers within and outside the counseling profession, and creating healing spaces that honor the intersections each of us inhabits. Grounded in liberation-focused and culturally affirming practices, Dr. Dipre’s work amplifies the voices and experiences of racialized and systemically excluded communities, particularly Latine immigrants and Afro-Latine individuals and families. Dr. Dipre was a 2020 Mental Health Counseling Doctoral Fellow with the NBCCF Minority Fellowship Program and is currently serving a second term as an Advisory Council member for the MFP–CMHC program.

Associations Between Coping and Suicide Risk Among Emerging Adults of Asian Descent

Dec 22, 2025 | Volume 15 - Issue 4

Afroze N. Shaikh, Man Chen, Jyotsna Dhar, Jackie Yang, Katherine Sadek, Mia Kim Chang, Li-Cih Hsu, Rithika Shilam, Abigail S. Varghese, Catherine Y. Chang

Suicide rates have risen among emerging adults of Asian descent, yet limited research has explored risk and protective factors within this population. Grounded in the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide, this study examined the associations between coping orientations (i.e., problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidant) and strategies (i.e., gratitude, self-compassion, and search for meaning in life) and suicide risk (i.e., perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness) among emerging adults of Asian descent (N = 429). Multiple linear regression models were used to assess these associations while controlling for relevant demographic variables. Problem-focused coping and gratitude were negatively associated with perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness, whereas emotion-focused and avoidant coping were positively associated with perceived burdensomeness. Avoidant coping was also positively associated with thwarted belongingness, whereas self-compassion was negatively associated with thwarted belongingness. These findings underscore the importance of culturally responsive interventions that promote active coping and emotional resilience in addressing perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness and addressing suicide risk factors.

Keywords: suicide risk, emerging adults, Asian, coping orientations, Interpersonal Theory of Suicide

Suicide is the second leading cause of death among emerging adults in the United States (ages 18–29) and emerging adults of Asian descent (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2023). According to the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (Van Orden et al., 2012), thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness are two proximal predictors of desire for suicide. Thwarted belongingness refers to feelings of loneliness and a lack of reciprocally caring relationships, whereas perceived burdensomeness refers to the perception that one is a liability or a burden to others. Among emerging adults of Asian descent, recent anti-Asian rhetoric as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic underscores the message that individuals of Asian descent do not belong in the United States and are a burden on society (Keum & Wong, 2023; Litam et al., 2021). Given the heightened vulnerability of emerging adults of Asian descent and compounding stressors because of various life transitions at this developmental stage (Matud et al., 2020), this study explores the associations between coping orientations (e.g., problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidant coping), strategies (e.g., practicing gratitude, self-compassion, and the search for meaning in life), perceived burdensomeness, and thwarted belongingness.

Coping Orientations
Coping, the use of resources to manage stressors, is often studied as a response to one’s environment (Carver, 2019). Scholars identify three overarching coping orientations: problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, and avoidant coping (Carver, 1997). Problem-focused coping refers to active efforts to deal with a stressor by attempting to change or eliminate it (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), such as addressing a conflict or asking for support. Problem-focused coping has been negatively linked to depression (O. D. Chang et al., 2024; C. E. Li et al., 2006), hopelessness (Elliott & Frude, 2001), and suicidal ideation (Clausen et al., 2025). Emerging adults of Asian descent may be more likely to use problem-focused coping strategies in response to external stressors, such as discrimination (Hwang et al., 2023; W. H. Kuo, 1995), because of cultural norms favoring direct advice and solution-seeking
(Wu & Chang, 2019; Yang & Clum, 1994).

Emotion-focused coping strategies, such as journaling or meditation (Baker & Berenbaum, 2007), often focus on managing or processing the emotions that may arise from a situation, as opposed to taking direct action to change the situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Emotion-focused coping can be both adaptive and maladaptive. For example, emotion-focused coping strategies (e.g., acceptance, social engagement) have been associated with positive mental health outcomes, especially in the face of discrimination (Martinez et al., 2025); however, strategies that involve self-distraction may be less beneficial long term (Perera & Chang, 2015). In addition, collectivism and the concept of the self as part of a larger network provide support for some emotion-focused strategies, such as engagement with community (B. C. H. Kuo, 2013; Yeh et al., 2006).

Lastly, avoidant coping, which involves minimizing, denying, or avoiding dealing with stressors (Roth & Cohen, 1986), is often linked to maladaptive behaviors, such as isolation or substance use (Penley et al., 2002). Among East Asian and South Asian individuals, avoidant coping in response to academic or interpersonal stressors was associated with higher levels of depression (Perera & Chang, 2015). E. C. Chang (2001) found that Asian students were more likely to use avoidant coping and withdraw socially as compared to European American students. Limited research has explored coping orientation and suicide risk among individuals of Asian descent (Y. Li et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2012). Given the high rates of suicide among this community, more research is needed to understand effective coping strategies as a means of intervention (Fastenau et al., 2024).

Coping Strategies
Coping is a dynamic process influenced by cultural nuances (E. C. Chang et al., 2006). Each coping orientation, defined as a broad framework through which individuals respond to stress, encompasses a range of specific coping strategies. These strategies are specific behaviors or techniques within coping orientations that are used to manage distress and can be adaptive or maladaptive. Coping strategies serve as cognitive or action-based approaches to temper the effects of an unpleasant situation (American Psychological Association, 2018). Gratitude, self-compassion, and the search for meaning in life are well-documented coping strategies that decrease distress and serve as protective factors against suicide risk (Y. Li et al., 2024; Neff, 2023).

Gratitude
Gratitude is defined as thankfulness for positive parts of life (Kaniuka et al., 2021) and has been shown to decrease distress from anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms while enhancing positive cognition, prosocial behaviors, and self-concept (Srirangarajan et al., 2020). Among college students in the Southern United States, gratitude decreased suicide risk by fostering positive cognitions, decreasing depression symptomology, increasing perceived social supports, and decreasing maladaptive coping strategies (e.g., substance misuse; Kaniuka et al., 2021). Gratitude has also been linked to increased feelings of belonging in sexual and gender minority adults (Fountain et al., 2021) and decreased suicidal ideation in a multiracial college student sample (Kleiman et al., 2013). However, stress due to holding multiple minoritized identities has been associated with greater feelings of burdensomeness in a sample of American LGBTQ+ adults with a history of suicide attempts (Williams, 2022). Despite these findings, research specifically on emerging adults of Asian descent is limited.

Cross-cultural research indicates that although expressions of gratitude differ between Asian and Western communities, gratitude remains culturally valid and socially normative across diverse populations of Asian descent (Chen et al., 2008; Srirangarajan et al., 2020). In many Japanese and Southeast Asian communities, collectivist orientations, the emphasis on interpersonal harmony, and familial interdependence shape the perception and expression of gratitude differently from other cultural groups (Balthip et al., 2022; Srirangarajan et al., 2020). Yet, differences in outcomes related to gratitude-based coping mechanisms have been documented. Two separate gratitude interventions showcased fewer well-being–related outcomes, including expressions of gratitude toward family and life satisfaction, in participants of Asian descent as compared to their White American counterparts (Srirangarajan et al., 2020). Given these mixed findings and noted cultural and contextual differences, we sought to examine the relationship between gratitude, perceived burdensomeness, and thwarted belongingness among individuals of Asian descent.

Self-Compassion
Self-compassion, defined as the ability to provide internal support during times of pain and suffering (Neff, 2023), has its origins in Buddhist tradition. Despite variations in its operationalization across cultures, self-compassion consistently contributes to psychological well-being across cultural contexts (Neff et al., 2008). In a multicultural, multigenerational U.S. sample, self-compassion was negatively correlated with suicidal thoughts, behaviors, and nonsuicidal self-injury (Suh & Jeong, 2021). Furthermore, among college students, self-compassion has been negatively associated with suicidal behavior (Kelliher Rabon et al., 2018), thwarted belongingness, and perceived burdensomeness (Umphrey et al., 2021).

The relationship between self-compassion and suicide has also shown promising results for emerging adults of Asian descent. Among Indonesian university students, self-compassion was found to buffer the effects of perceived burdensomeness and reduce the impact of thwarted belongingness on suicidal ideation (Djajadisastra et al., 2025). Umphrey et al. (2021) found that thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness partially mediated the relationship between self-compassion and suicidal ideation among college students. In a Canadian young adult sample with nearly 40% Asian descent participants, results of a brief, online self-compassion intervention showed a decrease in thwarted belongingness (Bianchini & Bodell, 2024). Yet, a follow-up study did not show significant changes in thwarted belongingness or perceived burdensomeness. This study aims to further explore the relationships among self-compassion, thwarted belongingness, and perceived burdensomeness among emerging adults of Asian descent in the United States.

Meaning in Life
Frankl (1992) argued that finding meaning is central to human existence, achievable through work, love, or care for another being and cultivating courageousness in times of strife (Viktor Frankl Institute for Logotherapy, n.d.). Y. Li et al. (2024) found that for young people ages 10–24, meaning in life was a significant protective factor against suicidal ideation, especially in high-income, individualistic cultures. Kleiman et al. (2013) found that, particularly in the presence of gratitude and grit, meaning in life can serve as a protective factor against suicidal behavior.

The protective role of meaning in life against suicide has also been evident in some Asian contexts. Lew and colleagues (2020) cited meaning in life as a mediating construct between depression, self-derogation, and suicidal ideation in Chinese student samples. For some low-income Filipino youth, meaning in life was a positive coping strategy against structural challenges (Bernardo et al., 2022). Qualitative analyses in a college-aged Asian American sample also found that both having purpose and finding meaning in life served as protective factors against suicidal thoughts (Tran et al., 2015). Still, there remains a dearth of research regarding the search for meaning in life as a coping strategy for Asians in the United States. Thus, we sought to explore this further in the context of perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness.

Purpose of the Study
Given the heightened vulnerability of emerging adults of Asian descent, we examined how coping orientations (i.e., problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, and avoidant coping) and strategies (i.e., gratitude, self-compassion, search for meaning in life) relate to suicide risk (i.e., perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness). Based on previous literature, we hypothesized that problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping would be negatively associated with perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness, whereas avoidant coping would have a positive association with proximal suicide risk factors. Given the mixed findings related to the relationship between emotion-focused coping and adverse mental health outcomes, we hope to add to the literature by examining this relationship among our population of interest. Regarding coping strategies, we hypothesized that gratitude, self-compassion, and searching for meaning in life would be negatively associated with perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness. The following research questions guided this study: 1) How are coping orientations and strategies associated with perceived burdensomeness among emerging adults of Asian descent? and 2) How are coping orientations and strategies associated with thwarted belongingness among emerging adults of Asian descent?

Methods

Procedures
Data for this study were obtained from a larger research project assessing suicide risk among adults of Asian descent (N = 578; Hsu et al., 2025; Shaikh et al., 2025). Inclusion criteria included self-identifying as 1) 18 years or older, 2) Asian or Asian American, and 3) currently residing in the United States. Recruitment occurred online via university listservs, social media, and an institutional research management system within a Southeastern urban public university in the United States. Participants were provided with basic information about the project, risks and benefits associated with participation, and a list of national crisis resources. Participants provided electronic consent and confirmation of eligibility via Qualtrics, a web-based survey tool. All study procedures were approved by an academic IRB.

Participants
From the larger research project, 429 participants met eligibility criteria for this study as emerging adults. Participant ages ranged from 18 to 29 (M = 21.53, SD = 2.05). Participants identified as 52.4% (n = 225) men and 47.6% (n = 204) women. Participants largely identified as heterosexual (n = 392, 91.4%), followed by bisexual (n = 26, 6%). In addition, the majority of participants identified as nonreligious (n = 126, 30.0%), followed by Protestant Christian (n = 91, 21.7%), Muslim (n = 85, 20.2%), and Hindu (n = 48, 11.4%). Participants had low (n = 142, 33.3%), middle (n = 204, 47.9%), and high incomes (n = 80, 18.8%). Participants identified as second generation (i.e., born in the United States of immigrant parents; n = 205, 47.8%), followed by 1.5 generation (i.e., born outside of the U.S. and immigrated as a child or adolescent; n = 95, 22.1%), and first generation (i.e., born outside the United States and immigrated as an adult; n = 52, 12.1%). Participants provided their ethnic identities via an open-ended response, with Indian (n = 75, 17.5%), Chinese (n = 47, 11.0%), Vietnamese (n = 46, 10.7%), and Korean (n = 40, 9.3%) as the most commonly reported ethnic groups. Overall, most participants reported never having attended counseling for more than 30 minutes (n = 311, 73.2%).

Measures
Coping Orientation
The 28-item Brief-Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced Inventory (Brief-COPE; Carver, 1997) was used to measure participants’ coping orientations across three subscales: Problem-Focused Coping (8 items), Emotion-Focused Coping (12 items), and Avoidant Coping (8 items). Items are scored on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (I haven’t been doing this at all) to 4 (I’ve been doing this a lot). Scores are calculated by averaging the sum of items across each subscale, with greater scores indicating greater engagement in the coping style. Sample items include “I’ve been taking action to try to make the situation better” (Problem-Focused), “I’ve been getting emotional support from others” (Emotion-Focused), and “I’ve been giving up trying to deal with it” (Avoidant). The subscales have yielded Cronbach’s alphas of .79, .74, and .74 (O. D. Chang et al., 2024) for Problem-Focused, Emotion-Focused, and Avoidant Coping, respectively, among U.S. adults. In this study, the subscales had Cronbach’s alphas of .87, .83, and .83 for the Problem-Focused, the Emotion-Focused, and Avoidant Coping subscales, respectively.

Gratitude
The Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ-6; McCullough et al., 2002) was used to assess gratitude across three dimensions: tendency to recognize gratitude, tendency to respond to gratitude, and tendency to experience gratitude. The questionnaire includes 6 items that are scored on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The scale is scored by reverse-scoring appropriate items and calculating a mean score, with higher scores indicating a stronger sense of gratitude. Sample items include “I have so much in life to be thankful for” and “I am grateful to a wide variety of people.” The scale has yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .78 among Chinese emerging adults (Lam & Chen, 2021) and Indian young adults (Singh et al., 2014). In this study, the GQ-6 had a Cronbach’s alpha of .79.

Self-Compassion
The Self-Compassion Scale Short Form (SCS-SF; Raes et al., 2011) was used to measure total self-compassion scores. The scale includes 12 items that are scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). Scores are calculated by reverse-scoring appropriate items, calculating a mean across each subscale, and computing a total mean score. Higher scores indicate a greater level of self-compassion. Sample items include, “I try to see my failings as part of the human condition” and “When something upsets me I try to keep my emotions in balance.” The scale has yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .84 among Asian American adults (Mateer et al., 2024). In the current study, the SCS-SF had a Cronbach’s alpha of .71.

Meaning in Life
The Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ; Steger et al., 2006) was used to assess how participants seek to find meaning and understanding in their lives. The Search for Meaning subscale includes 5 items and is scored on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (absolutely untrue) to 7 (absolutely true). Scores are calculated by creating a summed score across the items, with higher scores indicating a greater pursuit for meaning in life. Sample items include “I am always looking to find my life’s purpose” and “I am searching for meaning in my life.” The subscale has previously yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .85 among Chinese university students (Lew et al., 2020). In the current study, the subscale had a Cronbach’s alpha of .84.

Perceived Burdensomeness and Thwarted Belongingness
The Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire (INQ-15; Van Orden et al., 2012) was used to measure perceived burdensomeness (six items) and thwarted belongingness (nine items). The subscales are scored on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not true at all for me) to 7 (very true for me). Scores are calculated by reverse-scoring appropriate items and summing subscale items, with higher scores indicating greater levels of perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness. Sample items include “These days, the people in my life would be happier without me” (perceived burdensomeness) and “These days, I feel disconnected from other people” (thwarted belongingness). The subscales have yielded Cronbach’s alphas of .95 for perceived burdensomeness and .72 for thwarted belongingness among Asian American emerging adults (Keum & Wong, 2023). In the current study, the subscales had a Cronbach’s alpha of .97 and .85 for perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness, respectively.

Statistical Analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted in R statistical software (R Core Team, 2024). We ran separate multiple linear regression models to examine the associations between coping orientations and strategies and perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness, controlling for demographic variables including age, gender, religion, income, and psychotherapy. The first model investigated the relationship between coping orientations, perceived burdensomeness, and thwarted belongingness after controlling for demographic covariates. In the second model, we added coping strategies and compared the two models.

We investigated the missing data pattern using the mice R package (van Buuren & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, 2011). The proportion of missingness ranged from 0 to 7%, so we implemented multiple imputation by chained equations (mice) in the regression models. Specifically, five imputed datasets were generated, and pooled estimates were calculated using Rubin’s rules. We used the pool.compare function in the mice package for comparing Model 1 and Model 2 for each dependent variable. We checked the regression assumptions with visual inspection and computed heteroscedasticity robust standard errors and confidence intervals using the lmtest R package (Zeileis & Hothorn, 2002) to handle potential violations of homoscedasticity and normality assumptions.

Results

Factors Associated with Perceived Burdensomeness
Descriptive statistics are provided in Table 1.

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables

Variable	M	SD	Min	Max	Skewness	Kurtosis
Perceived burdensomeness	14.54	9.63	6.0	42.0	0.841	−0.437
Thwarted belongingness	28.86	10.45	9.0	55.0	−0.060	−0.746
Problem-focused coping	19.86	5.49	8.0	32.0	−0.127	−0.393
Emotion-focused coping	27.66	7.11	12.0	48.0	−0.167	−0.264
Avoidant coping	15.73	4.99	8.0	32.0	0.568	−0.166
Gratitude	5.26	1.13	1.5	7.0	−0.199	−0.571
Self-compassion	4.07	0.53	2.5	6.0	0.376	1.139
Search for meaning in life	24.93	6.28	5.0	35.0	−0.747	−0.911

In Model 1 (Table 2), after controlling for demographic covariates, a statistically significant negative association was identified between problem-focused coping and perceived burdensomeness (b = −0.627, p < .001, 95% CI [−0.849, −0.405]), while significant positive relationships were found between emotion-focused coping and perceived burdensomeness (b = 0.235, p < .05, 95% CI [0.027, 0.443]) and avoidant coping and perceived burdensomeness (b = 0.984, p < .001, 95% CI [0.763, 1.206]). About 34% of the variance in perceived burdensomeness was explained by the coping orientations and demographic covariates. In Model 2, problem-focused (b = −0.267, p < .05, 95% CI [−0.482, −0.052]), emotion-focused (b = 0.210, p < .05, 95% CI [0.011, 0.408]), and avoidant coping (b = 0.637, p < .001, 95% CI [0.409, 0.866]) remained significant predictors of perceived burdensomeness. In addition, gratitude was significantly negatively related to perceived burdensomeness (b = −3.013, p < .05, 95% CI [−3.748, −2.278]), while self-compassion (p = .115) and the search for meaning in life (p = .149) were not statistically significant predictors of perceived burdensomeness. About 45% of the variance in perceived burdensomeness was predicted by the coping strategies, coping orientations, and demographic covariates. A model comparison between Model 1 and Model 2 showed that the addition of coping strategies significantly improved the model fit, F(3, 3652.099) = 20.914, p < .001.

Table 2

Factors Associated With Perceived Burdensomeness

	Model 1				Model 2
			95% CI				95% CI
Variable	Estimate	SE	Lower	Upper	Estimate	SE	Lower	Upper
Intercept	10.658*	4.717	1.356	19.959	32.043***	5.541	21.131	42.955
Age	−0.206	0.190	−0.579	0.166	−0.217	0.165	−0.541	0.106
Woman	−0.399	0.810	−1.994	1.196	−0.323	0.753	−1.804	1.159
Catholic	1.968	1.787	−1.545	5.482	2.737	1.688	−0.582	6.056
Hindu	−0.676	1.728	−4.074	2.723	0.068	1.641	−3.162	3.299
Muslim	0.676	1.628	−2.527	3.879	2.007	1.461	−0.868	4.882
Nonreligious	0.210	1.458	−2.657	3.077	0.067	1.352	−2.592	2.725
Protestant Christian	−1.920	1.564	−4.999	1.158	−0.707	1.438	−3.537	2.123
Low income	1.242	1.207	−1.130	3.615	1.179	1.125	−1.035	3.394
Middle income	−0.199	1.127	−2.415	2.016	−0.213	1.055	−2.288	1.863
Never attended counseling	−1.722	0.919	−3.529	0.085	−1.311	0.842	−2.969	0.347
Problem-focused coping	−0.627***	0.113	−0.849	−0.405	−0.267*	0.109	−0.482	−0.052
Emotion-focused coping	0.235*	0.106	0.027	0.443	0.210*	0.101	0.011	0.408
Avoidant coping	0.984***	0.113	0.763	1.206	0.637***	0.116	0.409	0.866
Gratitude					−3.013*	0.374	−3.748	−2.278
Self-compassion					−1.225	0.774	−2.748	0.298
Search for meaning in life					−0.091	0.063	−0.214	0.033

Note. SE = Standard Error. CI = Confidence Interval. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001

Factors Associated With Thwarted Belongingness
In Model 1 (Table 3), after controlling for demographic covariates, a statistically significant negative association was identified between problem-focused coping and thwarted belongingness (b = −0.855, p < .001, 95% CI [−1.109, −0.601]). In contrast, a significant positive relationship was found between avoidant coping and thwarted belongingness (b = 0.917, p < .001, 95% CI [0.681, 1.152]). About 28% of the variance in thwarted belongingness was explained by the coping orientations and demographic covariates. In Model 2, problem-focused coping (b = −0.319, p < .05, 95% CI [−0.582, −0.056]) and avoidant coping (b = 0.387, p < .01, 95% CI [0.152, 0.621]) remained significant predictors. Moreover, both gratitude (b = −4.235, p < .001, 95% CI [−5.070, −3.399]) and self-compassion (b = −3.690, p < .001, 95% CI [−5.258, −2.121]) were significantly negatively associated with thwarted belongingness. About 48% of the variance in thwarted belongingness was predicted by the coping strategies, coping orientations, and demographic covariates. A model comparison between Model 1 and Model 2 showed that the addition of coping strategies significantly improved the model fit, F(3, 5028.87) = 43.010, p < .001.

Table 3

Factors Associated with Thwarted Belongingness

	Model 1				Model 2
			95% CI				95% CI
Variable	Estimate	SE	Lower	Upper	Estimate	SE	Lower	Upper
Intercept	34.389***	5.577	23.419	45.359	67.698***	5.402	57.068	78.328
Age	−0.064	0.228	−0.513	0.385	−0.108	0.180	−0.464	0.248
Woman	−0.864	0.912	−2.657	0.929	−1.102	0.757	−2.589	0.386
Catholic	−2.608	2.323	−7.180	1.964	−1.138	1.946	−4.968	2.692
Hindu	−0.565	2.295	−5.077	3.947	0.608	1.968	−3.265	4.481
Muslim	−2.242	2.114	−6.399	1.914	0.201	1.725	−3.191	3.593
Nonreligious	0.490	2.100	−3.640	4.620	0.927	1.717	−2.450	4.304
Protestant Christian	0.178	2.215	−4.180	4.536	1.947	1.882	−1.760	5.653
Low income	0.780	1.251	−1.681	3.240	0.425	1.047	−1.633	2.484
Middle income	0.566	1.199	−1.794	2.926	0.461	1.032	−1.568	2.490
Never attended counseling	−1.961	1.068	−4.061	0.139	−0.839	0.914	−2.637	0.958
Problem-focused coping	−0.855***	0.129	−1.109	−0.601	−0.319*	0.133	−0.582	−0.056
Emotion-focused coping	0.016	0.121	−0.222	0.254	−0.075	0.108	−0.288	0.138
Avoidant coping	0.917***	0.119	0.681	1.152	0.387**	0.119	0.152	0.621
Gratitude					−4.235***	0.425	−5.070	−3.399
Self-compassion					−3.69***	0.798	−5.258	−2.121
Search for meaning in life					0.132	0.067	0.000	0.264

Note. SE = Standard Error. CI = Confidence Interval. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine associations between coping orientations and strategies and proximal suicide risk factors, specifically perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness, among emerging adults of Asian descent. Problem-focused coping was negatively associated with both perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness. Specifically, active efforts to seek solutions and address stressors may reduce feelings of burdensomeness and social disconnection. This finding aligns with prior research suggesting that active problem-solving reduces stressors, fosters a sense of control, and enhances interpersonal connections (Y. Li et al., 2024). These results highlight the importance of culturally responsive interventions that strengthen active coping strategies. Problem-focused coping has been identified as a preferred coping strategy for emerging adults of Asian descent (Hwang et al., 2023), and encouraging these active coping strategies serves as a protective factor by mitigating the proximal suicide risk factors such as perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness, ultimately supporting psychological resilience among this population.

Conversely, emotion-focused and avoidant coping were positively associated with perceived burdensomeness. As individuals increased efforts to mitigate the emotional consequences of a stressor, they may have also increasingly perceived themselves as burdensome to others. Congruent with the cultural norms and values of collectivist cultures, this behavior emphasizes the internalization and regulation of personal emotions to foster social and interpersonal harmony. Within such cultural contexts, traditions and values may normalize the suppression of processing emotions in order to maintain a sense of harmony (Litam et al., 2021; Sue et al., 2019), which may result in increased feelings of self-blame and liability to others. Similarly, avoidant coping was positively associated with thwarted belongingness, underscoring the maladaptive role of this coping orientation. These findings are consistent with prior research among college students that highlighted how dependence on maladaptive coping behaviors elevated the intensity of association between various types of stress and suicidal ideation (Hussain & Hill, 2023).

Practicing gratitude was negatively associated with both perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness, underscoring the importance of fostering gratitude among individuals of Asian descent. Gratitude may promote a positive reframing of life circumstances and strengthen social bonds, thereby reducing feelings of burden and enhancing belongingness. A meta-analysis of studies assessing the impacts of mindfulness interventions on well-being (e.g., Kirca et al., 2023) highlighted the positive impact of gratitude interventions on well-being. Despite gratitude’s negative association with perceived burdensomeness, it is essential to note that expressions and experiences of gratitude may differ by individual and cultural group. Corona et al. (2020) examined gratitude and its link to well-being across Latinos and East Asians and found that the two collectivist cultures varied in their expressions and experiences of the construct.

Self-compassion was negatively associated with thwarted belongingness but not perceived burdensomeness. These findings suggest that self-compassion may reduce loneliness and enhance a sense of belonging yet may not directly impact feelings of burdensomeness among emerging adults of Asian descent. This underscores the need to support individuals in engaging in self-compassion exercises to strengthen one’s sense of connection and well-being (Liu et al., 2020). This pattern is consistent with prior studies showing that self-compassion fosters social connectedness and compassion for others (Neff & Germer, 2013).

Contrary to previous reports (e.g., Y. Li et al., 2024), the search for meaning in life did not significantly predict perceived burdensomeness or thwarted belongingness in our sample. These findings may highlight the complexity of emerging adulthood, which includes challenges such as identity exploration and changes to one’s education, career, and relationships (Arnett, 2011). Among emerging adults of Asian descent, these challenges may be further complicated in the process of navigating bicultural expectations, including familial obligations (Cheung & Swank, 2019). Furthermore, the search for meaning in life may constitute a more individualistic exploration that conflicts with collectivistic values emphasizing relational harmony and interdependence (Steger et al., 2008), thus limiting its relationship with proximal suicide risk factors at this stage of life.

Implications for Professional Counselors
The findings of this study have significant implications for professional counselors, particularly in the design and implementation of culturally sensitive interventions to address suicide risk among emerging adults of Asian descent. The positive association between problem-solving coping and lower levels of perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness highlights the importance of encouraging active, action-oriented coping strategies in counseling. Problem-solving approaches, such as structured planning and solution-seeking behaviors, can empower clients of Asian descent to address stressors effectively and in a culturally congruent manner. Within the counseling session, this may manifest as working with a client to develop a plan to address feelings of thwarted belongingness, such as identifying targeted ways to seek social support. In addition, counselors may consider implementing interventions to support client self-efficacy and use of problem-focused coping. For example, scholars have suggested the use of mindfulness training as a resource to increase problem-focused coping among students (Halland et al., 2015). When supporting clients navigating experiences of racial trauma and oppression, counselors may particularly benefit from situating problem-focused coping strategies within the radical healing framework and engaging in strategies that promote critical consciousness development, resistance, and the cultivation of radical hope (French et al., 2020).

Furthermore, emotion-focused and avoidant coping may exacerbate suicide risk factors for this population. Professional counselors will want to carefully assess clients’ reliance on emotion-focused or avoidant coping orientations and provide psychoeducation on the potential risks associated with maladaptive approaches in relation to suicide risk factors. Counseling interventions should allow for clients to identify adaptive coping orientations that align with their cultural values while promoting emotional processing and interpersonal connections. Among clients of Asian descent, this process may include discussing indirect forms of coping, such as saving face, or protecting one’s image and honor in interpersonal contexts. Concern for losing face has been linked to experiences of depressive symptoms (Kong et al., 2020) and diminished help-seeking attitudes (Leong et al., 2011), which may further exacerbate levels of suffering, isolation, and feelings of perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness.

As gratitude was negatively associated with both thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness, professional counselors can encourage clients of Asian descent to engage in gratitude exercises, such as meditation, prayer, and journaling. Practicing such exercises during counseling sessions, as well as encouraging these exercises outside of sessions, can support clients in feeling less like a burden and more connected to others (Diniz et al., 2023; Komase et al., 2021). When encouraging gratitude exercises, it is important to consider that emotion-focused coping was positively associated with perceived burdensomeness. Therefore, gratitude practices should be designed to emphasize interpersonal connection and belonging while intentionally de-emphasizing themes that could inadvertently reinforce feelings of being a burden. Tailoring these exercises to focus on relational appreciation and mutual support may be especially beneficial for emerging adults of Asian descent navigating collectivistic values.

Self-compassion was also negatively associated with thwarted belongingness, further emphasizing the importance of interventions that promote self-kindness and shared humanity during challenging times. Self-compassion exercises encourage individuals to view their struggles as a part of a common human experience rather than isolating events, thereby enhancing feelings of connection and reducing loneliness (Neff, 2011). Professional counselors can consider supporting clients of Asian descent to normalize imperfections and magnifying efforts they are taking to navigate adversities rather than providing praise (e.g., “You are doing great!”; “Excellent job of pushing through!”). Unlike praise, which uses evaluative language, encouragement focuses on the individual’s efforts and encourages steps they are taking (e.g., “You are working really hard.” and “That is challenging, and you are trying.”). Such approaches are more likely to support clients’ development of a growth mindset, empowering their ability to embrace mistakes as part of learning (Dweck, 2007). Moreover, professional counselors can engage in interventions to promote increased perspective-taking andcompassion toward oneself. Potential interventions include role play exercises, asking them what they might tell a friend going through their situation, maintaining a self-compassion journal, and taking time to process engaging in such exercises (Neff, n.d.). It is important to note that, given the diversity among individuals of Asian origin, the efficacy of self-compassion interventions may vary across Asian cultures. Supporting this notion, Neff and colleagues (2008) conducted a cross-cultural study of college students from three countries and found that Thai students reported the highest levels of self-compassion, Taiwanese students reported the lowest, and American students reported intermediate levels. These findings highlight the need to consider within-group cultural differences when developing and implementing self-compassion interventions.

Interestingly, given that the search for meaning in life was not significantly associated with suicide risk in this population, interventions focusing solely on meaning in life may not be sufficient for emerging adults of Asian descent. Professional counselors should consider integrating meaning in life–related strategies into broader frameworks that address other factors, such as gratitude and self-compassion. For example, professional counselors may incorporate meaning-making activities that align with cultural values, such as the use of personal storytelling (Wang et al., 2015), while also pairing this coping strategy with a problem-focused coping orientation or gratitude exercises.

Beyond the therapeutic space, professional counselors and counselor educators may benefit from leveraging these findings to recognize the unique needs of students of Asian descent in the classroom and within academic spaces. For example, this process may involve the integration of anti-oppressive problem-focused coping strategies in advising and mentoring relationships, reminders to engage in self-compassion within the training sequence, and inclusive encouragement. In turn, these strategies may help to decrease thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness in counseling trainees and students of Asian descent, an already marginalized group within counselor education (Shaikh et al., 2024).

Limitations and Future Directions
Although convenience sampling facilitated the recruitment of our target population, it may introduce bias. Specifically, online recruitment and data collection required internet and technological access, potentially limiting the sample’s representation. Additionally, individuals of Asian descent are not a homogenous group, and although our study included an intentionally diverse sample, the sample size was insufficient for subgroup comparisons. Future studies may consider exploring specific sociocultural differences (e.g., ethnicity, race, religious orientation, immigration status, social class) to understand within-group differences. Furthermore, given that our study utilized self-reported measures, future research may include other-report or behavioral measures to help triangulate our findings, such as recruiting participants’ family members. Finally, our study was a cross-sectional study, which does not allow us to make causal or directional claims. Future studies may consider using longitudinal or experimental designs to further explore particular mechanisms of suicidality and protective factors in the Asian diaspora.

Conclusion

Asians are the fastest-growing ethnoracial group in America (Vaishnav & Labh, 2023). Although suicide rates for emerging adults of Asian descent have increased (Bui & Lau, 2024), research on culturally specific risk factors and supports protecting against suicide risk is limited. Guided by the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide, we examined the associations between coping orientations and strategies and perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness. Problem-focused coping and gratitude were negatively associated with perceived burdensomeness, whereas avoidant and emotion-focused coping orientations demonstrated positive associations with perceived burdensomeness. Similarly, problem-focused coping, gratitude, and self-compassion were negatively associated with thwarted belongingness, whereas avoidant coping was positively associated with thwarted belongingness. These findings highlight the need for counseling interventions that integrate these coping orientations and strategies in order to address proximal suicide risk factors among emerging adults of Asian descent.

Conflict of Interest and Funding Disclosure
The authors reported no conflict of interest
or funding contributions for the development
of this manuscript.

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Afroze N. Shaikh, PhD, NCC, BC-TMH, LPC, is an assistant professor at the University of Texas at Austin and was a 2022 Mental Health Counseling Doctoral Fellow with the NBCCF Minority Fellowship Program. Man Chen, PhD, is an assistant professor at the University of Texas at Austin. Jyotsna Dhar, MA, LPC, is a doctoral student at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and was a 2022 Mental Health Counseling Master’s Fellow with the NBCCF Minority Fellowship Program. Jackie Yang, MA, is a doctoral candidate at the University of Texas at Austin. Katherine Sadek, MEd, is a graduate student at the University of Texas at Austin. Mia Kim Chang, PhD, EdM, NCC, is a part-time instructor at Georgia State University. Li-Cih Hsu, MS, is a doctoral intern at Vanderbilt University. Rithika Shilam is an independent researcher. Abigail S. Varghese, BS, is a doctoral student at the University of Texas at Austin. Catherine Y. Chang, PhD, NCC, LPC, CPCS, is a professor at Georgia State University. Correspondence may be addressed to Afroze Shaikh, 1912 Speedway, Stop D5000, Austin, TX 78712-1139, afroze.shaikh@austin.utexas.edu.

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